Country in South Asia Category: ./Category:Articles\_with\_short\_description Category: ./Category:Short\_description\_matches\_Wikidata This article is about the country. For other uses, see [India (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_(disambiguation) "India (disambiguation)"). Category: ./Category:Featured\_articles Category: ./Category:Wikipedia\_indefinitely\_move-protected\_pages#India Category: ./Category:Wikipedia\_extended-confirmed-protected\_pages#India Category: ./Category:Use\_Indian\_English\_from\_September\_2025 Category: ./Category:All\_Wikipedia\_articles\_written\_in\_Indian\_English Category: ./Category:Use\_dmy\_dates\_from\_September\_2025 See also: [Greater India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_India "Greater India") | Republic of India *Bhārat Gaṇarājya* | | | --- | --- | | [Horizontal tricolour flag bearing, from top to bottom, deep saffron, white, and green horizontal bands. In the centre of the white band is a navy-blue wheel with 24 spokes.](File:Flag_of_India.svg "Flag of India") [Flag](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_India "Flag of India") [State emblem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Emblem_of_India "State Emblem of India") | | | **Motto:***[Satyameva Jayate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyameva_Jayate "Satyameva Jayate")* Category: ./Category:Articles\_containing\_Sanskrit-language\_text ([Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_language "Sanskrit language")) "Truth Alone Triumphs"[[1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Informatics_Centre2005-1) | | | **Anthem:** *[Jana Gana Mana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jana_Gana_Mana "Jana Gana Mana")* Category: ./Category:Articles\_containing\_Hindi-language\_text ([Hindi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi_language "Hindi language"))[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-2)[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-india.gov.in-3)[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-tatsama-4) "Thou Art the Ruler of the Minds of All People"[[4]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolpert20031-5)[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-india.gov.in-3) | | | **National song: *[Vande Mataram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vande_Mataram "Vande Mataram")* Category: ./Category:Articles\_containing\_Sanskrit-language\_text ([Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_language "Sanskrit language"))[[b]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-6)** "I Bow to Thee, Mother"[[c]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-8)[[1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Informatics_Centre2005-1)[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-india.gov.in-3) | | | [Image of a globe centred on India, with India highlighted.](File:India_(orthographic_projection).svg) Territory controlled by India [Territory claimed but not controlled](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disputed_territories_of_India "Disputed territories of India") | | | Capital | [New Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi "New Delhi") [28°36′50″N 77°12′30″E / 28.61389°N 77.20833°E / 28.61389; 77.20833](https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=India¶ms=28_36_50_N_77_12_30_E_type:city_region:IN-DL) Category: ./Category:Pages\_using\_gadget\_WikiMiniAtlas | | Largest city by [city proper population](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_in_India_by_population "List of cities in India by population") | [Mumbai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai "Mumbai") | | Largest city by metropolitan area population | [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi "Delhi") | | Official languages | - [Hindi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi "Hindi") - [English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_English "Indian English")[[d]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-11)[[8]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-12) | | Recognised regional languages | [State level](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_with_official_status_in_India#Official_languages_of_states "Languages with official status in India") and [Eighth Schedule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Schedule_to_the_Constitution_of_India "Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India")[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-langoff-13) - Eighth Schedule - [Assamese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assamese_language "Assamese language") - [Bengali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_language "Bengali language") - [Boro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boro_language_(India) "Boro language (India)") - [Dogri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogri_language "Dogri language") - [Gujarati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarati_language "Gujarati language") - [Hindi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi "Hindi") - [Kannada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannada "Kannada") - [Kashmiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmiri_language "Kashmiri language") - [Konkani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkani_language "Konkani language") - [Maithili](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maithili_language "Maithili language") - [Malayalam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam "Malayalam") - [Manipuri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meitei_language "Meitei language") - [Marathi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_language "Marathi language") - [Nepali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepali_language "Nepali language") - [Odia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odia_language "Odia language") - [Punjabi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjabi_language "Punjabi language") - [Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit") - [Santali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santali_language "Santali language") - [Sindhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhi_language "Sindhi language") - [Tamil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_language "Tamil language") - [Telugu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telugu_language "Telugu language") - [Urdu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urdu "Urdu") - State level[[e]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-14) - [Bhujel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhujel_language "Bhujel language") - [Garo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garo_language "Garo language") - [Khasi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khasi_language "Khasi language") - [Kokborok](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokborok "Kokborok") - [Lepcha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepcha_language "Lepcha language") - [Limbu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbu_language "Limbu language") - [Magar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magar_language "Magar language") - [Mizo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizo_language "Mizo language") - [Newar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newar_language "Newar language") - [Rai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiranti_languages "Kiranti languages") - [Sherpa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherpa_language "Sherpa language") - [Sikkimese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikkimese_language "Sikkimese language") - [Sunuwar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunwar_language "Sunwar language") - [Tamang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamang_language "Tamang language") - all the 8th scheduled languages – except [Sindhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhi_language "Sindhi language"), [Kashmiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmiri_language "Kashmiri language") and [Dogri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogri_language "Dogri language")[[f]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-15) | | Native languages | [424 languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers_in_India "List of languages by number of native speakers in India")[[g]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-17) | | Religion (2011)[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Census2011religion-18) | - 79.8% [Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism_in_India "Hinduism in India") - 14.2% [Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_India "Islam in India") - 2.3% [Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_India "Christianity in India") - 1.7% [Sikhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism_in_India "Sikhism in India") - 0.7% [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India "History of Buddhism in India") - 0.4% [Jainism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism_in_India "Jainism in India") - 0.23% [unaffiliated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreligion_in_India "Irreligion in India") - 0.65% [other](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_India "Religion in India") | | [Demonyms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonym "Demonym") | - [Indian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_people "Indian people") - [others](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_for_India "Names for India") | | [Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_India "Politics of India") | Federal [parliamentary republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_republic "Parliamentary republic") | | | | | • [President](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India "President of India") | [Droupadi Murmu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droupadi_Murmu "Droupadi Murmu") | | • [Vice President](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_India "Vice President of India") | [C. P. Radhakrishnan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._P._Radhakrishnan "C. P. Radhakrishnan") | | • [Prime Minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India "Prime Minister of India") | [Narendra Modi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modi "Narendra Modi") | | | | | Legislature | [Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") | | • [Upper house](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_house "Upper house") | [Rajya Sabha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") | | • [Lower house](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_house "Lower house") | [Lok Sabha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") | | [Independence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_independence_movement "Indian independence movement") from the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") | | | | | | • [Dominion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_of_India "Dominion of India") | [15 August 1947](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_Day_(India) "Independence Day (India)") | | • [Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic "Republic") | [26 January 1950](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_Day_(India) "Republic Day (India)") | | | | | [Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_India "Geography of India") | | | • Total | 3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219 sq mi)[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-india.gov.in2-10)[[h]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-20) ([7th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area "List of countries and dependencies by area")) | | • Water (%) | 9.6 | | [Population](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_India "Demographics of India") | | | • 2026 estimate | Neutral increase 1.48 billion[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-21) ([1st](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population "List of countries and dependencies by population")) | | • 2011 census | Neutral increase 1,210,854,977[[14]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-22)[[15]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-23) ([2nd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population "List of countries and dependencies by population")) | | • Density | 435.0/km2 (1,126.6/sq mi) ([30th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population_density "List of countries and dependencies by population density")) | | [GDP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") ([PPP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity "Purchasing power parity")) | 2026 estimate | | • Total | Increase $18.902 trillion[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-IMFWEO.IN-24) ([3rd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP) "List of countries by GDP (PPP)")) | | • Per capita | Increase $12,801[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-IMFWEO.IN-24) ([121st](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita "List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita")) | | [GDP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") (nominal) | 2026 estimate | | • Total | Increase $4.153 trillion[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-IMFWEO.IN-24) ([6th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal) "List of countries by GDP (nominal)")) | | • Per capita | Increase $2,813[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-IMFWEO.IN-24) ([148th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita "List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita")) | | [Gini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gini_coefficient "Gini coefficient") (2022) | Positive decrease 25.5[[17]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-25) low inequality | | [HDI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index "Human Development Index") (2023) | Increase 0.685[[18]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-UNHDR-26) medium ([130th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index "List of countries by Human Development Index")) | | Currency | [Indian rupee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupee "Indian rupee") ([₹](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/₹ "₹")) ([INR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_4217 "ISO 4217")) | | Time zone | [UTC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time "Coordinated Universal Time")+05:30 ([IST](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Standard_Time "Indian Standard Time")) | | Date format | - dd-mm-yyyy[[i]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-27) | | [Calling code](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_India "Telephone numbers in India") | [+91](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_India "Telephone numbers in India") | | [ISO 3166 code](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_3166 "ISO 3166") | [IN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_3166-2:IN "ISO 3166-2:IN") | | [Internet TLD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_code_top-level_domain "Country code top-level domain") | [.in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.in ".in") ([others](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.in#Internationalised_domain_names_and_country_codes ".in")) | Category: ./Category:Pages\_using\_infobox\_country\_or\_infobox\_former\_country\_with\_the\_symbol\_caption\_or\_type\_parameters#TIndia **India**, officially the **Republic of India**,[[j]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-28)[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-29) is a country in [South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia"). It is the [seventh-largest country by area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area "List of countries and dependencies by area"), the [most populous country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population "List of countries and dependencies by population") in the world[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-30) and, since its independence in 1947, the world's most populous democracy.[[21]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-31)[[22]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-stein-arnold-32)[[23]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher2018184–185-33) Bounded by the [Indian Ocean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean") on the south, the [Arabian Sea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Sea "Arabian Sea") on the southwest, and the [Bay of Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal") on the southeast, it shares land borders with [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") to the west;[[k]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-35) [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China"), [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") and [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan "Bhutan") to the north; [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh") and [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar "Myanmar") to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is near [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka") and the [Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives "Maldives"). Its [Andaman and Nicobar Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands "Andaman and Nicobar Islands") share a [maritime border](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_boundary "Maritime boundary") with Myanmar, [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") and [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"). [Modern humans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_humans "Modern humans") arrived on the [Indian subcontinent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent "Indian subcontinent") from [Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa "Africa") no later than 55,000 years ago.[[25]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-PetragliaAllchin-36)[[26]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Dyson2018p1-37)[[27]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Fisher2018p23-38) Their long occupation, predominantly in isolation as hunter-gatherers, has made the region highly diverse.[[28]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Dyson2018-28a-39) [Settled life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic") emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the [Indus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River "Indus River") [river basin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_basin "River basin") 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the [Indus Valley Civilisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation "Indus Valley Civilisation") of the third millennium BCE.[[29]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-2-40) By 1200 BCE, an [archaic form](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-language "Proto-language") of [Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit"), an [Indo-European language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_language "Indo-European language"), had [diffused](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion "Trans-cultural diffusion") into India from the northwest.[[30]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-lowe1-41)[[31]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-4-Rigveda-42) [Its hymns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rig_Veda "Rig Veda") recorded the [early dawnings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion "Historical Vedic religion") of [Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") in India.[[32]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-3-43) India's pre-existing [Dravidian languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_languages "Dravidian languages") were supplanted in the northern regions.[[33]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-4-44) By 400 BCE, [caste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste "Caste") had emerged within Hinduism,[[34]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Dyson2018-16a-45) and [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India "History of Buddhism in India") and [Jainism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Jainism "History of Jainism") had arisen, proclaiming [social orders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_order "Social order") unlinked to heredity.[[35]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Fisher2018-59-46) Early political consolidations gave rise to the loose-knit [Maurya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya_Empire "Maurya Empire") and [Gupta Empires](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_Empire "Gupta Empire").[[36]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-5-47) During this era, there was a flourishing of creativity in art, architecture, and writing,[[37]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-6-48) the status of women declined,[[38]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-7-49) and [untouchability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untouchability "Untouchability") became an organised belief.[[l]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-51)[[39]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2016122–123-50) In [South India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_India "South India"), the [Middle kingdoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India#The_Deccan_plateau_and_South "Middle kingdoms of India") exported Dravidian language scripts and religious cultures to the kingdoms of [Southeast Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia "Southeast Asia").[[40]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-AsherAsher2006-17-52) In the [1st millennium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_millennium "1st millennium") [Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam "Islam"), [Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"), [Judaism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism "Judaism"), and [Zoroastrianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism "Zoroastrianism") became established on India's southern and western coasts.[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-8-53) Early in the [2nd millennium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_millennium "2nd millennium") Muslim armies from [Central Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia") intermittently overran India's northern plains.[[42]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-13-54) The resulting [Delhi Sultanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate "Delhi Sultanate") drew northern India into the cosmopolitan [networks of medieval Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age "Islamic Golden Age").[[43]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-10-55) In south India, the [Vijayanagara Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire "Vijayanagara Empire") created a long-lasting composite Hindu culture.[[44]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-AsherAsher2006-74-56) In the [Punjab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab "Punjab"), [Sikhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism "Sikhism") emerged, rejecting institutionalised religion.[[45]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-AsherAsher2006-267-57) The [Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") ushered in two centuries of economic expansion and relative peace,[[46]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-AsherAsher2006-152-58) and left [a rich architectural legacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecture "Mughal architecture").[[47]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Fisher2018-106-59)[[48]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsher1992[httpsarchiveorgdetailsarchitectureofmu0000ashepage250mode2up_250]-60) Gradually expanding [rule of the British East India Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company_rule_in_India "Company rule in India") turned India into a colonial economy but consolidated its [sovereignty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty "Sovereignty").[[49]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-11-61) [British Crown rule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj "British Raj") began in 1858. The rights promised to Indians were granted slowly,[[50]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-12-62)[[51]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeers2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddyQuAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]-63) but [technological changes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution") were introduced, and modern ideas of education and the public life took root.[[52]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-EmbreeHay1988-64) [A nationalist movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_independence_movement "Indian independence movement") emerged in India, the first in the non-European [British Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire") and an influence on other nationalist movements.[[53]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Marshall2001-65)[[54]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Chiriyankandath2016-66) Noted for nonviolent resistance after 1920,[[55]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-metcalf-metcalf-gandhi-1920-67) it became the primary factor in ending British rule.[[56]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-stein-arnold-successful-nationalism-68) In 1947, the British Indian Empire was [partitioned](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_India "Partition of India") into two independent [dominions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion#India_and_Pakistan "Dominion"), a Hindu-majority [dominion of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_of_India "Dominion of India") and a Muslim-majority [dominion of Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_of_Pakistan "Dominion of Pakistan"). A large-scale loss of life and an unprecedented migration accompanied the partition.[[57]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-69) India has been a [federal republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_republic "Federal republic") since 1950, governed through a democratic [parliamentary system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_system "Parliamentary system"). It is a [pluralistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy) "Pluralism (political philosophy)"), [multilingual](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingualism "Multilingualism") and [multi-ethnic society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiculturalism "Multiculturalism"). India's population grew from 361 million in 1951 to over 1.4 billion in 2023.[[58]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Dyson2018-219-70) During this time, its nominal [per capita income](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") increased from US$64 annually to US$2,601, and its literacy rate from 16.6% to 74%.[[59]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Fisher2018-8-71) The [Indian economy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_India "Economy of India") has since become a [fast-growing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_real_GDP_growth_rate "List of countries by real GDP growth rate") major economy and [a hub for information technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology_in_India "Information technology in India"), with an expanding middle class.[[60]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-MetcalfMetcalf2012-265-72) India has reduced [its poverty rate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_in_India "Poverty in India"), though at the cost of increasing economic inequality.[[61]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Dyson2018-216-a-73) It is a [nuclear-weapon state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons "List of states with nuclear weapons") that [ranks high in military expenditure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_military_expenditures "List of countries by military expenditures"). It has disputes over [Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir "Kashmir") with its neighbours, Pakistan and China, unresolved since the mid-20th century.[[62]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-kashmir-disputes-74) Among the socio-economic challenges India faces are [gender inequality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_inequality_in_India "Gender inequality in India"), [child malnutrition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnutrition_in_India "Malnutrition in India"),[[63]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-NarayanJohn2018-lead-75) and rising levels of [air pollution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution_in_India "Air pollution in India").[[64]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-BalakrishnanDey2019-lead-76) India's land is [megadiverse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megadiverse_country "Megadiverse country") with four [biodiversity hotspots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_hotspots "Biodiversity hotspots"). [India's wildlife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_of_India "Wildlife of India"), which has traditionally been viewed with tolerance in [its culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_India "Culture of India"), is supported in [protected habitats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_areas_of_India "Protected areas of India").[[65]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaranthGopal2005374-77) ## Etymology Main article: [Names for India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_for_India "Names for India") According to the *[Oxford English Dictionary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary "Oxford English Dictionary")*, the English proper noun "India" derives most immediately from the [Classical Latin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Latin "Classical Latin") *India*, a reference to a loosely-defined historical region of Asia stretching from [South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia") to the borders of China. Further [etymons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymon "Etymon") are: [Hellenistic Greek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Greek "Hellenistic Greek") *India* (Ἰνδία Category: ./Category:Articles\_containing\_Ancient\_Greek\_(to\_1453)-language\_text ); [Ancient Greek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek "Ancient Greek") *Indos* (Ἰνδός Category: ./Category:Articles\_containing\_Ancient\_Greek\_(to\_1453)-language\_text ), or the River [Indus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus "Indus"); Achaemenian [Old Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Persian "Old Persian") *[Hindu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu "Hindu")* (an eastern province of the [Achaemenid Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire "Achaemenid Empire")); and [Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit") *Sindhu*, or "river," but specifically the Indus river, and by extension its well-settled basin.[[66]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-78) The [Ancient Greeks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greeks "Ancient Greeks") referred to South Asians as *Indoi*, 'the people of the Indus'.[[67]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuiper201086-79) The term *[Bharat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_for_India#Bharat "Names for India")* (*Bhārat*; pronounced [[ˈbʱaːɾət]](Help:IPA/Hindi_and_Urdu "Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu") [ⓘ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hi-Bharat.ogg "File:Hi-Bharat.ogg") Category: ./Category:Pages\_with\_Hindustani\_IPA Category: ./Category:Pages\_including\_recorded\_pronunciations ), mentioned in both [Indian epic poetry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry "Indian epic poetry") and the [Constitution of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India"),[[68]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClémentin-Ojha2014-80)[[69]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-81) is used in its variations by [many Indian languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_for_India "Names for India"). A modern rendering of the historical name *Bharatavarsha*, which applied originally to [North India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_India "North India"),[[70]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Jha2014-82)[[71]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddYM4DwAAQBAJpgPA253_253]-83) *Bharat* gained increased currency from the mid-19th century as a native name for India.[[68]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClémentin-Ojha2014-80)[[72]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrow2003-84) *[Hindustan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan "Hindustan")* ([[ɦɪndʊˈstaːn]](Help:IPA/Hindi_and_Urdu "Help:IPA/Hindi and Urdu") [ⓘ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hindustan.ogg "File:Hindustan.ogg") Category: ./Category:Pages\_with\_Hindustani\_IPA Category: ./Category:Pages\_including\_recorded\_pronunciations ) is a [Middle Persian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Persian "Middle Persian") name for India that became popular by the 13th century,[[73]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-85) and was used widely since the era of the [Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire"). The meaning of *Hindustan* has varied, referring to a region encompassing the northern [Indian subcontinent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent "Indian subcontinent") (present-day northern India and [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan")) or to India in its near entirety.[[68]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClémentin-Ojha2014-80)[[72]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrow2003-84)[[74]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-86) ## History Main article: [History of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India "History of India") ### Ancient India [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Battle_at_Lanka%2C_Ramayana%2C_Udaipur%2C_1649-53.jpg/250px-Battle_at_Lanka%2C_Ramayana%2C_Udaipur%2C_1649-53.jpg)](File:Battle_at_Lanka,_Ramayana,_Udaipur,_1649-53.jpg) Manuscript illustration, c. 1650, of the Sanskrit epic [Ramayana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramayana "Ramayana"), composed in story-telling fashion c. 400 BCE – c. 300 CE[[75]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-87) [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg/250px-Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg)](File:Cave_26,_Ajanta.jpg) Cave 26, a [Buddhist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism") shrine, of the rock-cut [Ajanta Caves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajanta_Caves "Ajanta Caves") Based on [coalescence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalescent_theory "Coalescent theory") of [Mitochondrial DNA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA "Mitochondrial DNA") and [Y Chromosome](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Chromosome "Y Chromosome") data, it is thought that the earliest extant [lineages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lineage_(evolution) "Lineage (evolution)") of anatomically modern humans or *[Homo sapiens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_sapiens "Homo sapiens")* on the Indian subcontinent had reached there from Africa between 80,000 and 50,000 years ago, and with high likelihood by 55,000 years ago.[[25]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-PetragliaAllchin-36)[[26]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Dyson2018p1-37)[[27]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Fisher2018p23-38)[[76]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-mattern-slow-moon-non-african-migration-88) Their long occupation, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has made the region highly diverse, second only to Africa in human [genetic diversity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversity "Genetic diversity").[[28]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Dyson2018-28a-39) However, the earliest known modern human fossils in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago.[[26]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Dyson2018p1-37) Evidence for the [neolithic period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_period "Neolithic period") in the western margins of the [Indus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River "Indus River") [river basin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_basin "River basin"), at [Mehrgarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarh "Mehrgarh") in [Balochistan, Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan,_Pakistan "Balochistan, Pakistan"), dates to after 7000 BCE. Domestication of grain-producing plants (including [barley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barley "Barley")) and animals (including [humped zebu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebu "Zebu") cattle) occurred here. These cultures gradually evolved into the [Indus Valley Civilisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation "Indus Valley Civilisation"), which flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India.[[77]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright201045–51-89)[[29]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-2-40) Centred around cities such as [Mohenjo-daro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-daro "Mohenjo-daro"), [Harappa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harappa "Harappa"), [Dholavira](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavira "Dholavira"), [Ganweriwala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganweriwala "Ganweriwala"), and [Rakhigarhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhi "Rakhigarhi"),[[78]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2010107-90) its characteristic features included standardised weights, [steatite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soapstone "Soapstone") [seals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Seals "Indus Valley Civilisation"), a written script, urban planning, public works, and arts and crafts including pottery styles, terracotta human figures and animal statuettes.[[78]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2010107-90) Networks of towns and villages grew around the cities in a new [agro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture "Agriculture")-[pastoral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandry "Animal husbandry") economy.[[79]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2010145–146-91) Between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, an [archaic form](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-language "Proto-language") of [Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit"), an [Indo-European language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_language "Indo-European language"), [diffused](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion "Trans-cultural diffusion") into India from the northwest. Its evidence today is found in the [Rig Veda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rig_Veda "Rig Veda")—the oldest scripture associated with what later became [Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism")—which was composed by [Indo-Aryan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages "Indo-Aryan languages")-speaking tribes migrating east from what is today northern [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") and across the [Punjab region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_region "Punjab region").[[30]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-lowe1-41)[[31]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-4-Rigveda-42) The settling of the [Ganges](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges_river "Ganges river") [river plain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_plain "River plain") took place during the next millennium, when large swathes of the river system's adjoining regions were deforested, at times by setting fires, or later by employing iron implements, and prepared for agriculture. The settlement may have involved driving the preexisting people out or enslaving them.[[80]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDyson201816,_25-92) The [Dravidian languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_languages "Dravidian languages") of India were supplanted in the north, creating a broad [language family](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family "Language family")-divide, with the Indo-Aryan languages being spoken mainly in the [north](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_India "North India") and [west](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_India "West India"), and the Dravidian in some parts of [east India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India "East India") and most of the [south](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_India "South India").[[33]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Combined-4-44) [Classical Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Sanskrit "Classical Sanskrit"), a refined and standardised grammatical form would emerge in the mid-1st millennium BCE and was codified in the *[Aṣṭādhyāyī](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aṣṭādhyāyī "Aṣṭādhyāyī")* ('Eight chapters') of [Pāṇini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pāṇini "Pāṇini").[[m]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-94) The two major Sanskrit epics, the [Mahābhārata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahābhārata "Mahābhārata") and the [Rāmāyaṇa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rāmāyaṇa "Rāmāyaṇa"), however, were composed in a range of oral storytelling registers called [Epic Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Sanskrit "Epic Sanskrit") which was used in northern India between 400 BCE and 300 CE, and roughly contemporary with classical Sanskrit.[[82]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Lowe2017-epic-95) A second [urbanisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanisation "Urbanisation") had taken place in [South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia") by 400 BCE, this time on the Ganges plain. In fortified cities, [social differentiation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_differentiation "Social differentiation") by [caste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste "Caste"), or [varna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism) "Varna (Hinduism)"), had emerged.[[34]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Dyson2018-16a-45) By the mid-millennium two new ethical and social systems had arisen: [Jainism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Jainism "History of Jainism") based on the teachings of [Mahavira](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahavira "Mahavira") and [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India "History of Buddhism in India") on those of [the Buddha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Buddha "The Buddha"). Both religions stressed non-violence and abjured animal sacrifices conducted in [Brahmanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion#Brahmanism "Historical Vedic religion"),[[n]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-96) and birth into a fixed hereditary *varna*. By living ethically, lay people could rise socially and morally in these religions.[[35]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Fisher2018-59-46) Chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India.[[83]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein201021,_61–62-97) The rise of the two religions was a backdrop to the emergence of the first loose-knit geographically extensive power in South Asia, the [Maurya Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya_Empire "Maurya Empire"). During the rule of the founder's grandson, [Ashoka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoka "Ashoka") (ca. 268–232 BCE), the empire briefly controlled the major urban hubs and arteries of the subcontinent, except in the deep south.[[84]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDyson201816–17-98)[[o]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-100)[[p]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-102) The empire's period was notable for creativity in art, architecture, inscriptions, and produced texts,[[87]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudden201428–29-103) but also for the declining rights of women in the mainstream [Indo-Aryan speaking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages "Indo-Aryan languages") regions.[[88]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDyson201819-104) Following his [conquest of Kalinga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalinga_War "Kalinga War"), in which his forces caused immense loss of life, Ashoka adopted [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism"), subsequently adopting a policy of *dhamma* and commissioning numerous [rock and pillar edicts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka "Edicts of Ashoka") throughout the Maurya Empire to promote ethical conduct, non-violence, and social welfare.[[89]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein201073-105) As the edicts forbade both the killing of wild animals and the destruction of forests, Ashoka is seen by some modern environmental historians as an early embodiment of that ethos.[[90]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-elverskog-2020-lead-1-106)[[91]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher201872-107) By the 4th and 5th centuries, the [Gupta Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_Empire "Gupta Empire") had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain;[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2016118,_126-108) this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms.[[93]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobb201168–69-109) Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself.[[94]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein201093–94-110) The renewal was reflected in a flowering of art, literature, and science.[[95]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert201754–55-111)[[39]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2016122–123-50) In South India, the [Sangam literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangam_literature "Sangam literature") of the [Tamil language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_language "Tamil language") reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula was ruled by the [Cheras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chera_dynasty "Chera dynasty") and the [Cholas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_dynasty "Chola dynasty"), along the western and eastern plains, respectively, of the [Kaveri river](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaveri_river "Kaveri river") valley, and the [Pandyas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandya "Pandya") farther south along the [Vaigai river](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaigai_river "Vaigai river") valley.[[96]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein201098-112) By the sixth century, the [Pallavas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallava "Pallava") had grown into a regional power. Simultaneously, Buddhism and Jainism, which had favoured a conservative [transactionalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactionalism "Transactionalism"), were replaced by kingly devotion to the gods of particular places, which became a characteristic of the [Bhakti movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti_movement "Bhakti movement").[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010100–101-113) The Pallavas, in particular, [traded extensively with the Roman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations "Indo-Roman trade relations") and with [West](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Asia "Western Asia") and [Southeast Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia "Southeast Asia").[[98]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein201099-114) ### Medieval India Main article: [Medieval India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_India "Medieval India") [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Brihadisvara_Temple_during_Maha_Shivaratri-WUS03611_%28edit%29.jpg/250px-Brihadisvara_Temple_during_Maha_Shivaratri-WUS03611_%28edit%29.jpg)](File:Brihadisvara_Temple_during_Maha_Shivaratri-WUS03611_(edit).jpg) [Brihadisvara Temple](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple "Brihadisvara Temple"), built by [Chola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_Empire "Chola Empire") [Rajaraja I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajaraja_I "Rajaraja I") between 1003 and 1010 CE [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Close_view_and_art_work_of_Qutb_Minar.jpg/250px-Close_view_and_art_work_of_Qutb_Minar.jpg)](File:Close_view_and_art_work_of_Qutb_Minar.jpg) Calligraphy on the [Qutb Minar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutb_Minar "Qutb Minar"), built in the [Delhi sultanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_sultanate "Delhi sultanate") from 1199 CE to 1220 CE The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to 1200 CE, was defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.[[99]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010116-115) No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond their core region.[[q]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-117)[[100]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010115–116-116) During this time, pastoral peoples, whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy, were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010116–117-118) The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010116–117-118) In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first [devotional hymns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti "Bhakti") were composed in Tamil.[[102]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010118-119) They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all [modern languages of the subcontinent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_India "Languages of India").[[102]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010118-119) Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised drew citizens in significant numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.[[103]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010118–119-120) Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.[[103]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010118–119-120) By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in Southeast Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar "Myanmar"), [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand "Thailand"), [Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos "Laos"), [Brunei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei "Brunei"), [Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia"), [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"), [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia"), and [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia").[[104]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010121–123-121) Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; Southeast Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.[[104]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010121–123-121) After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using [swift-horse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courser_(horse) "Courser (horse)") cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains,[[r]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-123) leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic [Delhi Sultanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate "Delhi Sultanate") in 1206.[[106]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudden201485-124) The sultanate was to control much of North India and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs.[[107]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot202254-125)[[108]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf201241-126) By repeatedly repulsing [Mongol raiders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire "Mongol Empire") in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia,[[106]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudden201485-124) setting the scene for centuries of [migration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_migration "Human migration") of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[[109]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200850–51-127) The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous [Vijayanagara Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire "Vijayanagara Empire").[[110]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200853-128) Embracing a strong [Shaivite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism "Shaivism") tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control a large portion of peninsular India,[[111]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf201247-129) and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards.[[110]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200853-128) ### Early modern India [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Shaikh_Salim_Chishti_Ka_Maqbara.jpg/250px-Shaikh_Salim_Chishti_Ka_Maqbara.jpg)](File:Shaikh_Salim_Chishti_Ka_Maqbara.jpg) The *[dargah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dargah "Dargah")* of [Sufi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi "Sufi") [Salim Chisti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salim_Chisti "Salim Chisti"), built by [Mughal emperor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire"), [Akbar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akbar "Akbar"), early 17th century [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/India_1835_2_Mohurs.jpg/250px-India_1835_2_Mohurs.jpg)](File:India_1835_2_Mohurs.jpg) An [East India Company rule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company_rule_in_India "Company rule in India") gold [mohur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohur "Mohur"), issued during the reign of [William IIII](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_IV "William IV") In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers,[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobb201197–98-130) fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.[[113]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010159-131) The resulting [Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices[[114]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2022136-132)[[115]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobb2011108–109-133) and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[[116]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf201215-134) leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.[[117]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2022136,_151–152-135) Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under [Akbar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akbar "Akbar"), the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty—expressed through a Persianised culture—to an emperor who had near-divine status.[[118]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf201217-136) The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture[[119]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008158-137) and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[[120]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010164-138) caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[[121]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2022187-139) The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[[121]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2022187-139) resulting in greater patronage of [painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_painting "Mughal painting"), literary forms, textiles, and [architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecture "Mughal architecture").[[122]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008186-140) Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the [Marathas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maratha_Empire "Maratha Empire"), the [Rajputs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajput "Rajput"), and the [Sikhs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_Empire "Sikh Empire"), gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.[[123]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200623–24-141) Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.[[123]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200623–24-141) The incremental fragmentation of imperial authority during the late 17th and 18th centuries facilitated a process of decentralisation, enabling provincial elites to assert localised autonomy and consolidate control over their own affairs.[[124]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008256-142) By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial enterprise and political sovereignty increasingly blurred, European chartered companies—notably the [English East India Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company "East India Company")—solidified their presence through fortified coastal outposts.[[125]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008286-143)[[126]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200644–49-144) The East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to assert its military strength increasingly and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain control over the [Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal "Bengal") region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies.[[127]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobb2011115–117-145)[[125]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008286-143)[[128]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudden2002128–132-146)[[129]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200651–55-147) Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annexe or subdue most of India by the 1820s.[[130]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200668–71-148) India was no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but instead supplying the [British Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire") with raw materials. Many historians consider this to be the onset of India's colonial period.[[125]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008286-143) By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India Company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas, including education, social reform, and culture.[[131]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008289-149) ### Modern India Main article: [History of India (1947–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India_(1947–present) "History of India (1947–present)") [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Mahatma_Gandhi_leaves_Presidency_Jail_in_Calcutta.jpg/250px-Mahatma_Gandhi_leaves_Presidency_Jail_in_Calcutta.jpg)](File:Mahatma_Gandhi_leaves_Presidency_Jail_in_Calcutta.jpg) Mahatma Gandhi after a visit to the Presidency Jail, [Calcutta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcutta "Calcutta"), April 1938 [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Palace_of_Assembly_Chandigarh_2006.jpg/250px-Palace_of_Assembly_Chandigarh_2006.jpg)](File:Palace_of_Assembly_Chandigarh_2006.jpg) The [Capitol Complex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh_Capitol_Complex "Chandigarh Capitol Complex") in [Chandigarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh "Chandigarh"), commissioned after India's [1947 partition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_India "Partition of India") The appointment in 1848 of [Lord Dalhousie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Broun-Ramsay,_1st_Marquess_of_Dalhousie "James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie") as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state: the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in [Europe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe "Europe").[[132]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobb2011169–171-150)[[133]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200694–99-151)[[134]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown199483-152)[[135]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeers200650-153) Disaffection with the company also grew during this time and set off the [Indian Rebellion of 1857](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857 "Indian Rebellion of 1857"). Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some wealthy landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule.[[136]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006100–103-154)[[137]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown199485–86-155) After the rebellion was suppressed in 1858, the East India Company was disbanded, and the British government began to [directly administer India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj "British Raj"). Proclaiming a [unitary state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_state "Unitary state") and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system,[[138]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010227-156) the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.[[139]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006103–108-157) In the decades following, public life gradually emerged across India, eventually leading to the founding of the [Indian National Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress") in 1885.[[140]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobb2001183-158)[[141]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarkar19831–4-159)[[142]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopland2001ix–x-160)[[143]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006123-161) The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks, and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of faraway markets.[[144]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010249-162) There was an increase in the number of large-scale [famines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famine_in_India "Famine in India"),[[145]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010245-163) and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians.[[146]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010247–248-164) However, commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.[[147]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006126-165) The railway network provided critical famine relief,[[148]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200697-166) notably reduced the cost of moving goods,[[148]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200697-166) and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.[[147]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006126-165) After [World War I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), in which more than [1.3 million Indians served](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Army_during_World_War_I "Indian Army during World War I"),[[149]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006163-167) the Gandhian era began. It was marked by [British reforms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montagu–Chelmsford_Reforms "Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms") but also [repressive legislation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowlatt_act "Rowlatt act"), by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a [nonviolent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonviolent "Nonviolent") movement of non-co-operation led by [Mahatma Gandhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi "Mahatma Gandhi").[[150]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006167-168) During the 1930s, the British enacted slow legislative reform; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections.[[151]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006195–197-169) The next decade was beset with crises: [Indian participation in World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_in_World_War_II "India in World War II"), the Congress's final push for non-co-operation, and an upsurge of [Muslim nationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_nationalism_in_South_Asia "Muslim nationalism in South Asia"). All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the [partition of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_India "Partition of India") into two states: India and Pakistan.[[152]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006203-170) India's constitution was adopted in 1950 and established a secular, democratic republic.[[153]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006231-171) Economic liberalisation has created a large urban middle class and transformed India into a [fast growing economy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(real)_growth_rate "List of countries by GDP (real) growth rate").[[154]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-exp-middle-class-172)[[60]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-MetcalfMetcalf2012-265-72) However, India has been hamstrung by persistent poverty, both rural and urban;[[155]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006265–266-173) [religious](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India "Religious violence in India")- and [caste-related violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste-related_violence_in_India "Caste-related violence in India");[[156]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006266–270-174) [Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naxalite–Maoist_insurgency "Naxalite–Maoist insurgency");[[157]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006253-175) and [separatism in Jammu and Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurgency_in_Jammu_and_Kashmir "Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir") and [in Northeast India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurgency_in_Northeast_India "Insurgency in Northeast India").[[158]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006274-176) India has unresolved territorial disputes with [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China–India_relations#1960s "China–India relations") and with [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_wars_and_conflicts "Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts").[[159]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006247–248-177) ## Geography See also: [Geography of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_India "Geography of India") India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the [Indian tectonic plate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Plate "Indian Plate"), and a part of the [Indo-Australian Plate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Australian_Plate "Indo-Australian Plate").[[160]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAliAitchison2005-178) India's defining geologic processes began approximately 70 million years ago, when the Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent [Gondwana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana "Gondwana"), began a north-eastward [drift](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics "Plate tectonics") caused by [seafloor spreading](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafloor_spreading "Seafloor spreading") to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.[[160]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAliAitchison2005-178) Simultaneously, the vast [Tethyan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethys_Ocean "Tethys Ocean") [oceanic crust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_crust "Oceanic crust"), to its northeast, began to [subduct](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction "Subduction") under the [Eurasian Plate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Plate "Eurasian Plate").[[160]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAliAitchison2005-178) The [Indian continental crust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_plate "Indian plate"), however, was obstructed and was sheared horizontally. Its lower crust and mantle slid under, but the upper layer piled up in sheets (or [nappes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nappe "Nappe")) ahead of the subduction zone.[[161]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolnar2015117-179) This created the [orogeny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogeny "Orogeny"), or process of mountain building, of the Himalayas.[[162]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolnar2015118-180) The middle and stiffer layer continued to push into Tibet, causing [crustal thickening](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_tectonics "Thrust tectonics") of the [Tibetan Plateau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau "Tibetan Plateau").[[163]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMolnar2015128-181) Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast crescent-shaped [trough](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trough_(geology) "Trough (geology)") that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment[[164]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg20237-182) and now constitutes the [Indo-Gangetic Plain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain "Indo-Gangetic Plain").[[165]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrakash_et_al.2000-183) The original Indian plate makes its first appearance above the sediment in the ancient [Aravalli range](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aravalli_range "Aravalli range"), which extends from the [Delhi Ridge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_Ridge "Delhi Ridge") in a southwesterly direction. To the west lies the [Thar Desert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thar_Desert "Thar Desert"), the eastern spread of which is checked by the Aravallis.[[166]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-aravalli-184)[[167]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-prasad-aravalli-185)[[168]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-fisher-aravalli-186) The remaining Indian Plate survives as [peninsular India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_India "South India"), the oldest and geologically most stable part of India. It extends as far north as the [Satpura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satpura_Range "Satpura Range") and [Vindhya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindhya_Range "Vindhya Range") ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich [Chota Nagpur Plateau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chota_Nagpur_Plateau "Chota Nagpur Plateau") in Jharkhand in the east.[[169]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg20238-187) To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the [Deccan Plateau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan_Plateau "Deccan Plateau"), is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the [Western](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Ghats "Western Ghats") and [Eastern Ghats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Ghats "Eastern Ghats");[[170]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg20239–10-188) the plateau contains the country's oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north latitude[[s]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-189) and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east longitude.[[171]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinistry_of_Information_and_Broadcasting20071-190) Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the [Ganges](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges "Ganges") and the [Brahmaputra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmaputra_River "Brahmaputra River"), both of which drain into the [Bay of Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal").[[172]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg202315-191) Important tributaries of the Ganges include the [Yamuna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamuna "Yamuna") and the [Kosi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosi_River "Kosi River"). The Kosi's extremely low gradient, caused by long-term silt deposition, leads to severe floods and course changes.[[173]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuff1993353-192)[[174]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasuXavier2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnXmLDgAAQBAJpgPA78_78]-193) Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the [Godavari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godavari_River "Godavari River"), the [Mahanadi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi_River "Mahanadi River"), the [Kaveri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaveri_River "Kaveri River"), and the [Krishna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna_River "Krishna River"), which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[[175]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg202316-194) and the [Narmada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmada_River "Narmada River") and the [Tapti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapti_River "Tapti River"), which drain into the [Arabian Sea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Sea "Arabian Sea").[[176]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg202317-195) India's coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) in length; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains.[[177]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumarPathakPednekarRaju2006-196) According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the [mainland coastline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_India "Coastal India") consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% [mudflats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudflat "Mudflat") or marshy shores.[[177]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumarPathakPednekarRaju2006-196) Coastal features include the marshy [Rann of Kutch](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rann_of_Kutch "Rann of Kutch") of western India and the alluvial [Sundarbans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundarbans "Sundarbans") delta of eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh.[[178]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg202312-197) India has two [archipelagos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelago "Archipelago"): the [Lakshadweep](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshadweep "Lakshadweep") [coral atolls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoll "Atoll") off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the [Andaman Sea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_Sea "Andaman Sea").[[179]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg202313-198) India has [28 states and 8 union territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_and_union_territories_by_Human_Development_Index "List of Indian states and union territories by Human Development Index"). - [![A panoramic view of the Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas. Peaks rising above their surroundings are, among others, Trisul, Nanda Devi, the highest peak entirely within India's borders, and Nanda Kot. The Tibetan Plateau lies behind these mountains, as does the part of the Indus-Yarlung suture zone, the contour along which the Indian Plate has welded to the Eurasian plate. Mount Kailash and Lake Manasarovar in the Tibet Trans-Himalaya—sacred in Hindu and Buddhist mythology—lie immediately behind to the right. The Indus and Yarlung Tsangpo (the upper Brahmaputra river), which mark the western and eastern limits of the Himalaya range, rise near the lake.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Panorama_of_Himalayas_from_Ranikhet%2C_Uttarakhand%2C_India.jpg/960px-Panorama_of_Himalayas_from_Ranikhet%2C_Uttarakhand%2C_India.jpg)](File:Panorama_of_Himalayas_from_Ranikhet,_Uttarakhand,_India.jpg "A panoramic view of the Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas. Peaks rising above their surroundings are, among others, Trisul, Nanda Devi, the highest peak entirely within India's borders, and Nanda Kot. The Tibetan Plateau lies behind these mountains, as does the part of the Indus-Yarlung suture zone, the contour along which the Indian Plate has welded to the Eurasian plate. Mount Kailash and Lake Manasarovar in the Tibet Trans-Himalaya—sacred in Hindu and Buddhist mythology—lie immediately behind to the right. The Indus and Yarlung Tsangpo (the upper Brahmaputra river), which mark the western and eastern limits of the Himalaya range, rise near the lake.") A panoramic view of the Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas. Peaks rising above their surroundings are, among others, [Trisul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisul "Trisul"), [Nanda Devi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanda_Devi "Nanda Devi"), the highest peak entirely within India's borders, and [Nanda Kot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanda_Kot "Nanda Kot"). The [Tibetan Plateau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau "Tibetan Plateau") lies behind these mountains, as does the part of the [Indus-Yarlung suture zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus-Yarlung_suture_zone "Indus-Yarlung suture zone"), the contour along which the [Indian Plate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Plate "Indian Plate") has welded to the [Eurasian plate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_plate "Eurasian plate"). [Mount Kailash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kailash "Mount Kailash") and [Lake Manasarovar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Manasarovar "Lake Manasarovar") in the [Tibet Trans-Himalaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhimalaya "Transhimalaya")—sacred in Hindu and Buddhist mythology—lie immediately behind to the right. The [Indus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus "Indus") and [Yarlung Tsangpo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarlung_Tsangpo "Yarlung Tsangpo") (the upper [Brahmaputra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmaputra "Brahmaputra") river), which mark the western and eastern limits of the Himalaya range, rise near the lake. - [![The Tungabhadra, with rocky outcrops, flows into the peninsular Krishna River.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Tungabhadra_River_and_Coracle_Boats.JPG/330px-Tungabhadra_River_and_Coracle_Boats.JPG)](File:Tungabhadra_River_and_Coracle_Boats.JPG "The Tungabhadra, with rocky outcrops, flows into the peninsular Krishna River.") The [Tungabhadra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungabhadra_River "Tungabhadra River"), with rocky outcrops, flows into the peninsular [Krishna River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna_River "Krishna River").[[180]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcgrailBlueKentleyPalmer2003257-199) - [![The Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta in a Sentinel-3B image. The Ganges to the left, the Brahmaputra to the right.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Ganges_Delta_ESA22274217.jpeg/250px-Ganges_Delta_ESA22274217.jpeg)](File:Ganges_Delta_ESA22274217.jpeg "The Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta in a Sentinel-3B image. The Ganges to the left, the Brahmaputra to the right.") The [Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges-Brahmaputra_Delta "Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta") in a [Sentinel-3B](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentinel-3B "Sentinel-3B") image. The [Ganges](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges "Ganges") to the left, the Brahmaputra to the right. - [![A mangrove tree on a beach on Havelock Island, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Havelock_Island%2C_Mangrove_tree_on_the_beach%2C_Andaman_Islands.jpg/330px-Havelock_Island%2C_Mangrove_tree_on_the_beach%2C_Andaman_Islands.jpg)](File:Havelock_Island,_Mangrove_tree_on_the_beach,_Andaman_Islands.jpg "A mangrove tree on a beach on Havelock Island, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands") A [mangrove](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrove "Mangrove") tree on a beach on [Havelock Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havelock_Island "Havelock Island"), the [Andaman and Nicobar Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands "Andaman and Nicobar Islands") ### Climate Main article: [Climate of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_India "Climate of India") The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter [monsoons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsoon "Monsoon").[[181]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1967391–394-200) The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian [katabatic winds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katabatic_wind "Katabatic wind") from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[[182]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPosey1994118-201)[[183]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolpert20034-202) The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[[181]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1967391–394-200) Category: ./Category:Articles\_containing\_suspected\_AI-generated\_texts\_from\_April\_2026 [*[AI-generated?](Wikipedia:Large_language_models "Wikipedia:Large language models")*] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: [tropical wet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_India#Tropical_wet "Climate of India"), [tropical dry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_India#Arid_and_semi-arid_regions "Climate of India"), [subtropical humid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_India#Subtropical_humid "Climate of India"), and [montane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_India#Mountain "Climate of India").[[184]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeitzmanWorden199697-203) Temperatures in India have risen by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1901 and 2018.[[185]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-204) [Climate change in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_India "Climate change in India") is often thought to be the cause. The [retreat of Himalayan glaciers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850 "Retreat of glaciers since 1850") has adversely affected the [flow rate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumetric_flow_rate "Volumetric flow rate") of the major Himalayan rivers, including the [Ganges](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges "Ganges") and the [Brahmaputra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmaputra "Brahmaputra").[[186]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-205) According to some current projections, the number and severity of droughts in India will have markedly increased by the end of the present century.[[187]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-206) - [![Indian coral tree in bloom in the mist of the Southwest Monsoon, Mallalli Falls, Hassan, Karnataka](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Coral_Tree_Monsoon_Mallalli_Falls_Hassan_Jun24_A7CR_01575.jpg/250px-Coral_Tree_Monsoon_Mallalli_Falls_Hassan_Jun24_A7CR_01575.jpg)](File:Coral_Tree_Monsoon_Mallalli_Falls_Hassan_Jun24_A7CR_01575.jpg "Indian coral tree in bloom in the mist of the Southwest Monsoon, Mallalli Falls, Hassan, Karnataka") [Indian coral tree](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_coral_tree "Indian coral tree") in bloom in the mist of the [Southwest Monsoon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwest_Monsoon "Southwest Monsoon"), [Mallalli Falls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallalli_Falls "Mallalli Falls"), [Hassan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan,_Karnataka "Hassan, Karnataka"), Karnataka - [![A dromedary in the Thar desert](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Dromedary_in_Thar_desert.jpg/330px-Dromedary_in_Thar_desert.jpg)](File:Dromedary_in_Thar_desert.jpg "A dromedary in the Thar desert") A [dromedary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dromedary "Dromedary") in the [Thar desert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thar_desert "Thar desert") - [![New snow in Baspa Valley, Sangla, Himachal Pradesh](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Baspa_Valley_at_Sangla%2C_Himachal_Pradesh%2C_India.jpg/330px-Baspa_Valley_at_Sangla%2C_Himachal_Pradesh%2C_India.jpg)](File:Baspa_Valley_at_Sangla,_Himachal_Pradesh,_India.jpg "New snow in Baspa Valley, Sangla, Himachal Pradesh") New snow in [Baspa Valley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baspa_Valley "Baspa Valley"), [Sangla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangla,_India "Sangla, India"), [Himachal Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh "Himachal Pradesh") ### Biodiversity Main articles: [Forestry in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestry_in_India "Forestry in India") and [Wildlife of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_of_India "Wildlife of India") India is a [megadiverse country](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megadiverse_country "Megadiverse country"), a term employed for 17 countries that host high [biological diversity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_diversity "Biological diversity") and contain many species [indigenous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_(ecology) "Indigenous (ecology)"), or [endemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic "Endemic"), to them.[[188]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-207) India is the [habitat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat "Habitat") for 8.6% of all [mammals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal "Mammal"), 13.7% of [bird](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird "Bird") species, 7.9% of [reptile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reptile "Reptile") species, 6% of [amphibian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibian "Amphibian") species, 12.2% of [fish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish "Fish") species, and 6.0% of all [flowering plant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant "Flowering plant") species.[[189]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-208)[[190]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Puri-209) Fully a third of Indian plant species are endemic.[[191]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBasak198324-210) India also overlaps four of the world's 34 [biodiversity hotspots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_hotspot "Biodiversity hotspot"),[[192]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-IUCN-India-211) or regions that display significant habitat loss in the presence of high endemism.[[t]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-213)[[193]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-SivaperumanVenkataraman2018-212) India's most dense forests, such as the [tropical moist forest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forest "Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest") of the [Andaman Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_Islands "Andaman Islands"), the [Western Ghats](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Ghats "Western Ghats"), and [Northeast India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_India "Northeast India"), occupy approximately 3% of its land area.[[194]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Jha2018-214)[[195]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-indiaforest-215) *Moderately dense forest*, whose canopy density is between 40% and 70%, occupies 9.39% of India's land area.[[194]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Jha2018-214)[[195]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-indiaforest-215) It predominates in the [temperate coniferous forest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest "Temperate coniferous forest") of the [Himalayas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalaya "Himalaya"), the moist deciduous *[sal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shorea_robusta "Shorea robusta")* forest of eastern India, and the dry deciduous [teak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teak "Teak") forest of central and southern India.[[196]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTETritsch200111–12-216) India has two natural zones of [thorn forest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands "Deserts and xeric shrublands"), one in the [Deccan Plateau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan_Plateau "Deccan Plateau"), immediately east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain, now turned into rich agricultural land by irrigation, its features no longer visible.[[197]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-217) Among the Indian subcontinent's notable indigenous trees are the [astringent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astringent "Astringent") *[Azadirachta indica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azadirachta_indica "Azadirachta indica")*, or *neem*, which is widely used in rural Indian [herbal medicine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbal_medicine "Herbal medicine"),[[198]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Goyal2006-218) and the luxuriant *[Ficus religiosa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus_religiosa "Ficus religiosa")*, or *peepul*,[[199]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Hughes2013-219) which is displayed on the ancient seals of [Mohenjo-daro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-daro "Mohenjo-daro"),[[200]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-AmeriCostello2018-220) and under which [the Buddha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha "Gautama Buddha") is recorded in the [Pali canon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pāli_Canon "Pāli Canon") to have sought enlightenment.[[201]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Gwynne2011-221) Many Indian species have descended from those of [Gondwana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana "Gondwana"), the southern [supercontinent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinent "Supercontinent") from which India separated more than 100 million years ago.[[202]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrameOwen2002142-222) India's subsequent collision with Eurasia set off a mass exchange of species. However, [volcanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan_Traps "Deccan Traps") and [climatic changes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change "Climate variability and change") later caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[[203]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaranth2006-223) Still later, mammals entered India from Asia through two [zoogeographic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoogeography "Zoogeography") passes flanking the Himalayas.[[204]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTETritsch200114-224) This lowered endemism among India's mammals, which stands at 12.6%, contrasting with 45.8% among reptiles and 55.8% among amphibians.[[190]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Puri-209) Among endemics are the vulnerable[[205]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-225) [hooded leaf monkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilgiri_Langur "Nilgiri Langur")[[206]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-itis-226) and the threatened [Beddome's toad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duttaphrynus_beddomii "Duttaphrynus beddomii")[[207]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-IUCN-227)[[208]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-228) of the Western Ghats. India contains 172 [IUCN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Conservation_Union "World Conservation Union")-designated [threatened animal species](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_endangered_animals_in_India "List of endangered animals in India"), or 2.9% of endangered forms.[[209]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUCN1994xli-229) These include the endangered [Bengal tiger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_tiger "Bengal tiger") and the [Ganges river dolphin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_river_dolphin "South Asian river dolphin"). [Critically endangered](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critically_endangered "Critically endangered") species include the [gharial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gharial "Gharial"), a [crocodilian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocodilian "Crocodilian"); the [great Indian bustard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Indian_bustard "Great Indian bustard"); and the [Indian white-rumped vulture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-rumped_vulture "White-rumped vulture"), which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of [diclofenac](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diclofenac "Diclofenac")-treated cattle.[[210]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-LovetteFitzpatrick2016-230) Before they were extensively used for agriculture and cleared for human settlement, the thorn forests of Punjab were mingled at intervals with open grasslands that were grazed by large herds of [blackbuck](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackbuck_Conservation_Area "Blackbuck Conservation Area") preyed on by the [Asiatic cheetah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic_cheetah "Asiatic cheetah"); the blackbuck, no longer extant in Punjab, is now severely endangered in India, and the cheetah is extinct.[[211]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-231) The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response, the system of [national parks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_parks_of_India "National parks of India") and [protected areas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_areas_of_India "Protected areas of India"), first established in 1935, was expanded substantially. In 1972, India enacted the [Wildlife Protection Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_Protection_Act_of_1972 "Wildlife Protection Act of 1972")[[212]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinistry_of_Environment_and_Forests_1972-232) and [Project Tiger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Tiger "Project Tiger") to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988.[[213]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDepartment_of_Environment_and_Forests1988-233) India hosts [more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_sanctuaries_of_India "Wildlife sanctuaries of India") and [eighteen biosphere reserves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere_reserves_of_India "Biosphere reserves of India"),[[214]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-234) four of which are part of the [World Network of Biosphere Reserves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Network_of_Biosphere_Reserves "World Network of Biosphere Reserves"); its [eighty-nine wetlands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ramsar_sites_in_India "List of Ramsar sites in India") are registered under the [Ramsar Convention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsar_Convention "Ramsar Convention").[[215]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-235) - [![An Attacus taprobanis moth from Kadavoor, Kerala](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Attacus_taprobanis-Kadavoor-2018-07-07-001.jpg/330px-Attacus_taprobanis-Kadavoor-2018-07-07-001.jpg)](File:Attacus_taprobanis-Kadavoor-2018-07-07-001.jpg "An Attacus taprobanis moth from Kadavoor, Kerala") An *[Attacus taprobanis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacus_taprobanis "Attacus taprobanis")* moth from [Kadavoor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadavoor "Kadavoor"), [Kerala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala "Kerala") - [![India has the majority of the world's wild tigers, approximately 3,170 in 2022.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bengal_tiger_in_Sanjay_Dubri_Tiger_Reserve_December_2024_by_Tisha_Mukherjee_11.jpg/330px-Bengal_tiger_in_Sanjay_Dubri_Tiger_Reserve_December_2024_by_Tisha_Mukherjee_11.jpg)](File:Bengal_tiger_in_Sanjay_Dubri_Tiger_Reserve_December_2024_by_Tisha_Mukherjee_11.jpg "India has the majority of the world's wild tigers, approximately 3,170 in 2022.") India has the majority of the world's wild [tigers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger "Tiger"), approximately 3,170 in 2022.[[216]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-236) - [![A purple sunbird perched on an Indian coral tree, Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/003_Purple_sunbird_in_Jim_Corbett_National_Park_Photo_by_Giles_Laurent.jpg/330px-003_Purple_sunbird_in_Jim_Corbett_National_Park_Photo_by_Giles_Laurent.jpg)](File:003_Purple_sunbird_in_Jim_Corbett_National_Park_Photo_by_Giles_Laurent.jpg "A purple sunbird perched on an Indian coral tree, Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand") A [purple sunbird](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_sunbird "Purple sunbird") perched on an [Indian coral tree](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_coral_tree "Indian coral tree"), [Jim Corbett National Park](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Corbett_National_Park "Jim Corbett National Park"), [Uttarakhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttarakhand "Uttarakhand") - [![A Crested hawk-eagle with an Indian garden lizard in Satpura National Park, Madhya Pradesh](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Crested_hawk-eagle_%28Nisaetus_cirrhatus_cirrhatus%29_with_Indian_garden_lizard.jpg/250px-Crested_hawk-eagle_%28Nisaetus_cirrhatus_cirrhatus%29_with_Indian_garden_lizard.jpg)](File:Crested_hawk-eagle_(Nisaetus_cirrhatus_cirrhatus)_with_Indian_garden_lizard.jpg "A Crested hawk-eagle with an Indian garden lizard in Satpura National Park, Madhya Pradesh") A [Crested hawk-eagle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crested_hawk-eagle "Crested hawk-eagle") with an Indian [garden lizard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_lizard "Garden lizard") in [Satpura National Park](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satpura_National_Park "Satpura National Park"), Madhya Pradesh - [![Saltwater crocodile in Sundarbans National Park, West Bengal](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Saltwater_crocodile_in_Sundarbans_National_Park_November_2024_by_Tisha_Mukherjee_03.jpg/500px-Saltwater_crocodile_in_Sundarbans_National_Park_November_2024_by_Tisha_Mukherjee_03.jpg)](File:Saltwater_crocodile_in_Sundarbans_National_Park_November_2024_by_Tisha_Mukherjee_03.jpg "Saltwater crocodile in Sundarbans National Park, West Bengal") [Saltwater crocodile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltwater_crocodile "Saltwater crocodile") in [Sundarbans National Park](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundarbans_National_Park "Sundarbans National Park"), [West Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengal "West Bengal") ## Government and politics ### Politics Main article: [Politics of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_India "Politics of India") See also: [Democracy in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_in_India "Democracy in India") [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/The_Prime_Minister%2C_Shri_Narendra_Modi_addressing_the_inaugural_function_of_the_WCIT_India_2018_at_Hyderabad_via_video_conferencing_from_Misuru%2C_on_February_19%2C_2018_%281%29.jpg/250px-thumbnail.jpg)](File:The_Prime_Minister,_Shri_Narendra_Modi_addressing_the_inaugural_function_of_the_WCIT_India_2018_at_Hyderabad_via_video_conferencing_from_Misuru,_on_February_19,_2018_(1).jpg) [Narendra Modi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modi "Narendra Modi") has been India's Prime Minister since 2014. India is a [parliamentary republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_republic "Parliamentary republic") with a [multi-party system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-party_system "Multi-party system").[[217]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnellCalvert1999125-237) There are six recognised [national parties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India#National_parties "List of political parties in India") in the country, including the [Indian National Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress") (generally, "the Congress") and the [Bharatiya Janata Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party") (BJP); there are over 50 [regional parties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India#State_parties "List of political parties in India").[[218]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElection_Commission_of_India-238) The Congress is considered the [ideological centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrism "Centrism") in Indian [political culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_culture "Political culture");[[219]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-239) the BJP is [right-wing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-wing_politics "Right-wing politics") to [far-right](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far-right_politics "Far-right politics"). After India's independence on August 15, 1947, [Jawaharlal Nehru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru "Jawaharlal Nehru") became prime minister of the [Dominion of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_of_India "Dominion of India"), an office he held until January 26, 1950, when India became a republic; Nehru remained the caretaker prime minister until the following year.[[u]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-243) In the general elections in [1951](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1951_Indian_general_election "1951 Indian general election"), [1957](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1957_Indian_general_election "1957 Indian general election"), and [1962](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962_Indian_general_election "1962 Indian general election"), the Congress, led by Nehru, won by comfortable margins. After Nehru [died](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Jawaharlal_Nehru "Death and state funeral of Jawaharlal Nehru") in office in May 1964, [Lal Bahadur Shastri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lal_Bahadur_Shastri "Lal Bahadur Shastri") was unanimously chosen by the Congress to be parliamentary leader, and thus prime minister. After the [India–Pakistan war of 1965](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India–Pakistan_war_of_1965 "India–Pakistan war of 1965"), Shastri [died](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Lal_Bahadur_Shastri "Death and state funeral of Lal Bahadur Shastri") in January 1966, soon after signing the [Tashkent Peace Declaration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashkent_Declaration "Tashkent Declaration"). The Congress chose [Indira Gandhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Gandhi "Indira Gandhi") to be prime minister. She led the party to election victories in [1967](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Indian_general_election "1967 Indian general election") and [1971](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_Indian_general_election "1971 Indian general election"), the latter a [landslide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landslide_victory "Landslide victory") after Pakistan's defeat in the [Bangladesh Liberation War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War "Bangladesh Liberation War"). In 1975, Indira Gandhi declared a [state of emergency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emergency_(India) "The Emergency (India)"), suspending many civil liberties. Following public discontent with the Emergency, the Congress was voted out of power in [1977](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977_Indian_general_election "1977 Indian general election"); [Janata Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janata_Party "Janata Party"), which had opposed the Emergency, was voted in. Its government lasted two years; [Morarji Desai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morarji_Desai "Morarji Desai") and [Charan Singh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charan_Singh "Charan Singh") served as prime ministers. The Congress returned to power in 1980. After a [military operation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Blue_Star "Operation Blue Star") against [Sikh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhs "Sikhs") militants occupying the [Golden Temple](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Temple "Golden Temple") in [Amritsar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amritsar "Amritsar"), Indira Gandhi was [assassinated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Indira_Gandhi "Assassination of Indira Gandhi") by a Sikh bodyguard on October 31, 1984. She was succeeded as prime minister by [Rajiv Gandhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajiv_Gandhi "Rajiv Gandhi"), who led Congress to a comfortable victory in the [elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_Indian_general_election "1984 Indian general election") at the end of the year. In 1989, a [National Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_(India) "National Front (India)") coalition, led by the [Janata Dal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janata_Dal "Janata Dal"), in alliance with the [Left Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_India_(Marxist) "Communist Party of India (Marxist)"), won the [general elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_Indian_general_election "1989 Indian general election"). The subsequent government lasted just under two years; [V. P. Singh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._P._Singh "V. P. Singh") and [Chandra Shekhar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra_Shekhar "Chandra Shekhar") served as prime ministers.[[223]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhambhri1992118,_143-244) In 1991, soon after the first round of polling in the [general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Indian_general_election "1991 Indian general election"), Congress leader Rajiv Gandhi [was assassinated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Rajiv_Gandhi "Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi") by a member of a [Sri Lankan Tamil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Tamils "Sri Lankan Tamils") [separatist organisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_Tigers_of_Tamil_Eelam "Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam") who was seeking to avenge [Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_intervention_in_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war "Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan civil war"). After the elections, Congress emerged as the largest single party; a new Congress leader, [P. V. Narasimha Rao](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._V._Narasimha_Rao "P. V. Narasimha Rao"), formed a [minority government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_government "Minority government") which served a full five-year term.[[224]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-245) In 1996, the BJP briefly formed a government after winning the [general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996_Indian_general_election "1996 Indian general election"). [United Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Front_(India,_1996) "United Front (India, 1996)") coalition governments followed, which relied on external political support, [H. D. Deve Gowda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._D._Deve_Gowda "H. D. Deve Gowda") and [I. K. Gujral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I._K._Gujral "I. K. Gujral") serving as prime ministers. After the [1998 Indian general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_Indian_general_election "1998 Indian general election"), [Atal Bihari Vajpayee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atal_Bihari_Vajpayee "Atal Bihari Vajpayee") of the BJP became prime minister; his government was short-lived due to the lack of a continued mandate. Elections were held again in [1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999_Indian_general_election "1999 Indian general election"). The BJP, now a part of the [National Democratic Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Democratic_Alliance "National Democratic Alliance") (NDA), formed a coalition government led by Vajpayee, who became the first non-Congress prime minister to complete a five-year term.[[225]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunleavyDiwakarDunleavy2007-246) In the [2004 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_general_election "2004 Indian general election"), the NDA was defeated. Congress emerged as the largest single party and formed a coalition, the [United Progressive Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Progressive_Alliance "United Progressive Alliance") (UPA). [Manmohan Singh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manmohan_Singh "Manmohan Singh"), a Sikh, who was proposed by Congress President [Sonia Gandhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonia_Gandhi "Sonia Gandhi") to be parliamentary leader, served as prime minister of the UPA government, but with some external support.[[v]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-247) The UPA returned to power in the [2009 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_Indian_general_election "2009 Indian general election") with increased numbers, no longer dependent on external support.[[226]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2004384-248) Singh became the first prime minister to be re-elected after Jawaharlal Nehru in 1962.[[227]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBusiness_Standard2009-249) In the [2014 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Indian_general_election "2014 Indian general election"), the BJP under [Narendra Modi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modi "Narendra Modi") became the first political party since 1984 to win an absolute majority.[[228]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-250) The party won a larger majority in the [2019 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Indian_general_election "2019 Indian general election"). After losing its majority in the [2024 general election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Indian_general_election "2024 Indian general election"), the BJP formed a coalition government with its NDA partners. Modi is the longest-serving non-Congress prime minister.[[229]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-251) [Democratic backsliding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_backsliding "Democratic backsliding") was found by the 2026 [V-Dem Democracy Report](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-Dem_Institute#Democracy_Report "V-Dem Institute").[[230]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-j496-252) ### Government Main articles: [Government of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India"), [State governments of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_governments_of_India "State governments of India"), and [Local government in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_government_in_India "Local government in India") See also: [Constitution of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Constitution_of_India.jpg/250px-Constitution_of_India.jpg)](File:Constitution_of_India.jpg) The original preamble of the [Constitution of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") in 1950. In 1976, during the tenure of Indian prime minister [Indira Gandhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Gandhi "Indira Gandhi"), the first sentence was changed to "Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic". The Constitution of India was drafted by the [Constituent Assembly of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_India "Constituent Assembly of India") with uncommon speed and absence of irregularities between 1946 and 1949.[[231]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpear1990242-253) The [Government of India Act 1935](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1935 "Government of India Act 1935") was used as a model and framework.[[231]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpear1990242-253) Long passages from the Act were included. The constitution describes a federal state with a parliamentary system of democracy.[[231]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpear1990242-253) The federal structure was conspicuous for the strength of the central government, which exclusively exercised control of defence, foreign affairs, railways, ports, and currency.[[231]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpear1990242-253) The President, the constitutional head of state, has reserve powers for taking over the administration of a state.[[231]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpear1990242-253) The central legislature has two houses: the *[Lok Sabha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha")*, whose delegates are directly elected by the people in general elections every five years, and the *[Rajya Sabha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha")*, whose members are nominated by the elected representatives in the states.[[231]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpear1990242-253) There are also features not to be found in the Act of 1935. The definition of fundamental rights is based on the [Constitution of the United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States "Constitution of the United States"), and the constitutional directives, or goals of endeavor, are based on the [Constitution of Ireland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Ireland "Constitution of Ireland").[[232]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpear1990243-254) An Indian institution recommended by the constitution is the *[panchayat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchayati_raj_in_India "Panchayati raj in India")* or village committees.[[232]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpear1990243-254) [Untouchability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untouchability "Untouchability") is illegal (Article 17) and caste distinctions are derecognized (Articles 15(2) and 16(2)).[[232]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpear1990243-254) The promulgation of the Indian constitution transformed India into a republic within the Commonwealth.[[232]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpear1990243-254) The [prime minister of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India "Prime Minister of India") is the [head of government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_government "Head of government") and exercises most [executive power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_(government) "Executive (government)").[[233]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1950-255) Appointed by the president,[[234]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma2007162-256) the prime minister is supported by the [party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_party "Political party") or [political alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_alliance "Political alliance") with a majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.[[233]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma1950-255) The executive of the Indian government consists of the president, the [vice-president](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_India "Vice President of India"), and the [Union Council of Ministers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Council_of_Ministers "Union Council of Ministers")—with the [cabinet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_(government) "Cabinet (government)") being its executive committee—headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.[[235]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200731-257) In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and their council are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament. [Civil servants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Services_of_India "Civil Services of India") act as permanent executives and all decisions of the executive are implemented by them.[[236]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathew2003524-258) India has a three-tier unitary [independent judiciary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicial_independence "Judicial independence")[[237]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeuborne2003478-259) comprising the [supreme court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India "Supreme Court of India"), headed by the [Chief Justice of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India "Chief Justice of India"), 25 [high courts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India"), and a large number of trial courts.[[237]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeuborne2003478-259) The supreme court has [original jurisdiction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_jurisdiction "Original jurisdiction") over cases involving [fundamental rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India "Fundamental rights in India") and over disputes between states and the centre and has [appellate jurisdiction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appellate_jurisdiction "Appellate jurisdiction") over the high courts.[[238]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma2007238,_255-260) It has the power to both strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution[[239]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESripati1998423–424-261) and invalidate any government action it deems unconstitutional.[[240]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPylee2003b314-262) ### Administrative divisions Main article: [Administrative divisions of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India "Administrative divisions of India") See also: [Political integration of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_integration_of_India "Political integration of India") ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Political_map_of_India_EN.svg/250px-Political_map_of_India_EN.svg.png) A clickable map of the 28 states and 8 union territories of India India is a federal union comprising 28 [states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India "States and union territories of India") and 8 [union territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_territory "Union territory").[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTELibrary_of_Congress2004-19) All states, as well as the union territories of [Jammu and Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory) "Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)"), [Puducherry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puducherry_(union_territory) "Puducherry (union territory)") and the [National Capital Territory of Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi "Delhi"), have elected legislatures and governments following the [Westminster system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system "Westminster system"). The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the central government through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the [States Reorganisation Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_Reorganisation_Act,_1956 "States Reorganisation Act, 1956"), states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.[[241]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200749-263) There are over a quarter of a million local government bodies at city, town, district, block and village levels.[[242]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-264) #### States - [Andhra Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh "Andhra Pradesh") - [Arunachal Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh "Arunachal Pradesh") - [Assam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam "Assam") - [Bihar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bihar "Bihar") - [Chhattisgarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhattisgarh "Chhattisgarh") - [Goa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goa "Goa") - [Gujarat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarat "Gujarat") - [Haryana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haryana "Haryana") - [Himachal Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh "Himachal Pradesh") - [Jharkhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jharkhand "Jharkhand") - [Karnataka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka") - [Kerala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala "Kerala") - [Madhya Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh "Madhya Pradesh") - [Maharashtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra") - [Manipur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur "Manipur") - [Meghalaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meghalaya "Meghalaya") - [Mizoram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizoram "Mizoram") - [Nagaland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagaland "Nagaland") - [Odisha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odisha "Odisha") - [Punjab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab,_India "Punjab, India") - [Rajasthan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthan "Rajasthan") - [Sikkim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikkim "Sikkim") - [Tamil Nadu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu") - [Telangana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telangana "Telangana") - [Tripura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripura "Tripura") - [Uttar Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh "Uttar Pradesh") - [Uttarakhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttarakhand "Uttarakhand") - [West Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengal "West Bengal") #### Union territories - [Andaman and Nicobar Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands "Andaman and Nicobar Islands") - [Chandigarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh "Chandigarh") - [Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli_and_Daman_and_Diu "Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu") - [Jammu and Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory) "Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)") - [Ladakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladakh "Ladakh") - [Lakshadweep](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshadweep "Lakshadweep") - [National Capital Territory of Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi "Delhi") - [Puducherry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puducherry_(union_territory) "Puducherry (union territory)") ### Foreign relations Main article: [Foreign relations of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_India "Foreign relations of India") [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Jawaharlal_Nehru%2C_Nasser_and_Tito_at_the_Conference_of_Non-Aligned_Nations_held_in_Belgrade.jpg/250px-Jawaharlal_Nehru%2C_Nasser_and_Tito_at_the_Conference_of_Non-Aligned_Nations_held_in_Belgrade.jpg)](File:Jawaharlal_Nehru,_Nasser_and_Tito_at_the_Conference_of_Non-Aligned_Nations_held_in_Belgrade.jpg) In the 1950s and 60s, India played a pivotal role in the [Non-Aligned Movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement "Non-Aligned Movement").[[243]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Dinkel2018-265) From left to right: [Gamal Abdel Nasser](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser "Gamal Abdel Nasser") of [United Arab Republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Republic "United Arab Republic") (now Egypt), [Josip Broz Tito](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito "Josip Broz Tito") of [Yugoslavia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia") and [Jawaharlal Nehru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru "Jawaharlal Nehru") in Belgrade, September 1961. India remained a member of the [Commonwealth of Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations "Commonwealth of Nations") after becoming a republic in 1950.[[244]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-storm-india-commonwealth-266)[[245]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-267) It strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia in the 1950s, and played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[[246]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERothermund200048,_227-268) After cordial relations with China during the greater part of the 1950s, India and China went to [war in 1962](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Indian_War "Sino-Indian War"); India was widely thought to have been decisively defeated.[[247]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-62-humiliation-269) By 1967, however, India was able to fend off [Chinese excursions into Sikkim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Indian_War_of_1967 "Sino-Indian War of 1967").[[248]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-270) India has had [uneasy relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_relations "Indo-Pakistani relations") with its western neighbour, Pakistan. The two went to war in [1947](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1947 "Indo-Pakistani War of 1947"), [1965](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1965 "Indo-Pakistani War of 1965"), [1971](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1971 "Indo-Pakistani War of 1971"), and [1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kargil_War "Kargil War"). Three wars were fought over the [disputed territory of Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir_conflict "Kashmir conflict").[[249]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert2002486–487-271) After the 1965 war, India began to pursue close military and economic [ties with the Soviet Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India-Soviet_Union_relations "India-Soviet Union relations"). By the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was India's largest arms supplier.[[250]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma199956-272) China's [nuclear test of 596](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/596_(nuclear_test) "596 (nuclear test)") and threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war caused India to produce nuclear weapons.[[251]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerkovich200160–86,_106–125-273) India conducted its [first nuclear weapons test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiling_Buddha "Smiling Buddha") in 1974 and carried out [additional underground testing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhran-II "Pokhran-II") in 1998. India has signed neither the [Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_Nuclear-Test-Ban_Treaty "Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty") nor the [Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Non-Proliferation_Treaty "Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty"), considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.[[252]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2010-274) India maintains a "[no first use](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_first_use "No first use")" nuclear policy and is developing a [nuclear triad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_triad "Nuclear triad") capability as a part of its "[Minimum Credible Deterrence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_Credible_Deterrence "Minimum Credible Deterrence")" doctrine.[[253]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTENair2007-275)[[254]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-276) Since the end of the [Cold War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), India has increased its economic, strategic, and military cooperation with the [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India–United_States_relations "India–United States relations") and the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India–European_Union_relations "India–European Union relations").[[255]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEuropean_Union_2008-277) In 2008, a [civilian nuclear agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.–India_Civil_Nuclear_Agreement "U.S.–India Civil Nuclear Agreement") was signed between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the [International Atomic Energy Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency "International Atomic Energy Agency") and the [Nuclear Suppliers Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Suppliers_Group "Nuclear Suppliers Group"), ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce; India subsequently signed co-operation agreements involving [civilian nuclear energy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India "Nuclear power in India") with Russia,[[256]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritish_Broadcasting_Corporation_2009-278) France,[[257]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERediff_2008_a-279) the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India–United_Kingdom_relations "India–United Kingdom relations"),[[258]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReuters2010-280) and [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada–India_relations "Canada–India relations").[[259]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurry2010-281) ## Economy Main article: [Economy of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_India "Economy of India") The Indian economy has been among the ten [largest economies in the world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_largest_historical_GDP "List of countries by largest historical GDP") since 2010. As of 2026, Indian gross domestic output (GDP) is the [6th largest in the world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal) "List of countries by GDP (nominal)").[[260]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-ID-282)[[261]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-283) Measured by [purchasing power parity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity "Purchasing power parity") (PPP), India is the [third-largest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP) "List of countries by GDP (PPP)") economy.[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-IMFWEO.IN-24) It is one of the [world's fastest-growing economies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_real_GDP_growth_rate "List of countries by real GDP growth rate") with an average annual growth rate exceeding 5% from 1990 to 2010.[[262]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTENayakGoldarAgrawal2010xxv-284)[[263]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInternational_Monetary_Fund_20112-285) Demographics strain its economy, with the nation historically maintaining [low GDP per capita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita "List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita") both regionally and as measured by globally.[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-IMFWEO.IN-24) The vast majority of Indians fall into the global low-income group based on average daily income.[[264]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-286) Until 1991, all Indian governments followed [protectionist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectionism "Protectionism") policies that were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread [state intervention and regulation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licence_Raj "Licence Raj") largely walled the economy off from the outside world. An acute [balance of payments crisis in 1991](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Indian_economic_crisis "1991 Indian economic crisis") forced the nation to [liberalise its economy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India "Economic liberalisation in India");[[265]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolpert2003xiv-287) since then, it has moved increasingly towards a free-market system[[266]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrganisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development_2007-288)[[267]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGargan1992-289) by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows.[[268]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlamgir200823,_97-290) India has been a member of [World Trade Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Organization "World Trade Organization") since 1 January 1995.[[269]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorld_Trade_Organization_1995-291) The 522-million-worker [Indian labour force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_in_India "Labour in India") is the [world's second largest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_labour_force "List of countries by labour force"), as of 2017[[update]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=India&action=edit) Category: ./Category:Articles\_containing\_potentially\_dated\_statements\_from\_2017 Category: ./Category:All\_articles\_containing\_potentially\_dated\_statements .[[270]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECentral_Intelligence_Agency-292) The service sector makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%. India's [foreign exchange remittances](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remittance "Remittance") of US$100 billion in 2022,[[271]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-293) the highest in the world, were contributed to its economy by 32 million Indians working in foreign countries.[[272]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-294) In 2006, the share of external trade in India's GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.[[266]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrganisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development_2007-288) In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.6%;[[273]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-295) in 2021, it was the [world's ninth-largest importer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_imports "List of countries by imports") and the [sixteenth-largest exporter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_exports "List of countries by exports").[[274]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-296) Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to 42%.[[275]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEconomist_2011-297) India was the [world's second-largest textile exporter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_textile_exports "List of countries by textile exports") after [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China") in the 2013 calendar year.[[276]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEconomic_Times_2014-298) Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years before 2007,[[266]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrganisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development_2007-288) India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century.[[277]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonner2010-299) Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India's middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030.[[278]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFarrellBeinhocker2007-300) In 2024, India's consumer market was the [world's third largest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_consumer_markets "List of largest consumer markets").[[279]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-301) India's nominal [GDP per capita](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDP_per_capita "GDP per capita") increased steadily from US$308 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to US$1,380 in 2010, to an estimated US$2,731 in 2024. It is expected to grow to US$3,264 by 2026.[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-IMFWEO.IN-24) - [![In 2019, 43% of India's total workforce was employed in agriculture.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Plowing_the_land_in_India_-_modern_and_traditional.jpg/330px-Plowing_the_land_in_India_-_modern_and_traditional.jpg)](File:Plowing_the_land_in_India_-_modern_and_traditional.jpg "In 2019, 43% of India's total workforce was employed in agriculture.") In 2019, 43% of India's total workforce was employed in agriculture.[[280]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-worldbank-ilo-total-agriculture-302) - [![A woman growing radish in the foreground and garlic to the right in a village in the Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu. 55% of India's female workforce was employed in agriculture in 2019.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Fields_Akoni_Nilgiris_Tamil_Nadu_Nov24_A7CR_05287.jpg/330px-Fields_Akoni_Nilgiris_Tamil_Nadu_Nov24_A7CR_05287.jpg)](File:Fields_Akoni_Nilgiris_Tamil_Nadu_Nov24_A7CR_05287.jpg "A woman growing radish in the foreground and garlic to the right in a village in the Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu. 55% of India's female workforce was employed in agriculture in 2019.") A woman growing radish in the foreground and garlic to the right in a village in the [Nilgiris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilgiris "Nilgiris"), Tamil Nadu. 55% of India's female workforce was employed in agriculture in 2019.[[281]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-worldbank-ilo-female-agriculture-303) - [![India is the world's largest producer of milk, with the largest population of cattle. In 2018, nearly 80% of India's milk was sourced from small farms with herd size between one and two, the milk harvested by hand milking.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/ILRI%2C_Stevie_Mann_-_Villager_and_calf_share_milk_from_cow_in_Rajasthan%2C_India.jpg/330px-ILRI%2C_Stevie_Mann_-_Villager_and_calf_share_milk_from_cow_in_Rajasthan%2C_India.jpg)](File:ILRI,_Stevie_Mann_-_Villager_and_calf_share_milk_from_cow_in_Rajasthan,_India.jpg "India is the world's largest producer of milk, with the largest population of cattle. In 2018, nearly 80% of India's milk was sourced from small farms with herd size between one and two, the milk harvested by hand milking.") India is the [world's largest producer of milk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_milk_production "List of countries by milk production"), with the largest population of cattle. In 2018, nearly 80% of India's milk was sourced from small farms with herd size between one and two, the milk harvested by hand milking.[[282]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-milk-sourcing-304) ### Industries Main articles: [Industry in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_in_India "Industry in India") and [Energy in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_in_India "Energy in India") See also: [Energy policy of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_policy_of_India "Energy policy of India") The [Indian automotive industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_India "Automotive industry in India"), the world's second-fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–2010,[[283]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBusiness_Line_2010-305) and exports by 36% during 2008–2009.[[284]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEExpress_India_2009-306) In 2022, India became the world's third-largest vehicle market after China and the United States, surpassing Japan.[[285]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-307) At the end of 2011, the [Indian IT industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology_in_India "Information technology in India") employed 2.8 million professionals, generated revenues close to US$100 billion equalling 7.5% of Indian GDP, and contributed 26% of India's merchandise exports.[[286]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTENasscom_2011–2012-308) The [pharmaceutical industry in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_India "Pharmaceutical industry in India") includes 3,000 pharmaceutical companies and 10,500 manufacturing units; India is the world's third-largest pharmaceutical producer, largest producer of generic medicines, and supplies up to 50–60% of global vaccines demand, contributing up to US$24.44 billion in exports. India's local pharmaceutical market is estimated up to US$42 billion.[[287]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Phamra1-309)[[288]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Pharma2-310) India is among the top 12 biotech destinations in the world.[[289]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-311)[[290]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYep2011-312) The Indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 2012–2013, increasing its revenues from ₹204.4 billion ([Indian rupees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupee "Indian rupee")) to ₹235.24 billion (US$3.94 billion at June 2013 exchange rates).[[291]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-313) India's capacity to generate electrical power is 300 gigawatts, of which 42 gigawatts is renewable.[[292]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Par-314) [The country's usage of coal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_in_India "Coal in India") is a major cause of [India's greenhouse gas emissions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_India#Greenhouse_gas_emissions "Climate change in India"), but [its renewable energy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_India "Renewable energy in India") is growing.[[293]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-315) India emits about 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions. This equates to about 2.5 tons of [carbon dioxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide "Carbon dioxide") per person per year, which is half the world average.[[294]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-USAID2018-316)[[295]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-UNEP2019-317) Increasing [access to electricity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrification "Electrification") and [clean cooking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_cooking "Clean cooking") with [liquefied petroleum gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas "Liquefied petroleum gas") have been priorities for energy in India.[[296]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-318) - [![Mumbai, the centre of India's tertiary sector finance industry, also contributes to tourism. Shown here are the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel to the left and the Gateway of India.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Panoramic_view_of_Taj_Palace_Hotel_and_Taj_Tower_with_the_iconic_Gateway_of_India_in_the_background.jpg/330px-Panoramic_view_of_Taj_Palace_Hotel_and_Taj_Tower_with_the_iconic_Gateway_of_India_in_the_background.jpg)](File:Panoramic_view_of_Taj_Palace_Hotel_and_Taj_Tower_with_the_iconic_Gateway_of_India_in_the_background.jpg "Mumbai, the centre of India's tertiary sector finance industry, also contributes to tourism. Shown here are the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel to the left and the Gateway of India.") [Mumbai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai "Mumbai"), the centre of India's [tertiary sector](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector "Tertiary sector") [finance industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance_industry "Finance industry"), also contributes to [tourism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_in_India "Tourism in India"). Shown here are the [Taj Mahal Palace Hotel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taj_Mahal_Palace_Hotel "Taj Mahal Palace Hotel") to the left and the [Gateway of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_of_India "Gateway of India"). - [![A tea garden in Sikkim. India, the world's second-largest producer of tea, is a nation of one billion tea drinkers, who consume 70% of India's tea output.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Cherry_Resort_inside_Temi_Tea_Garden%2C_Namchi%2C_Sikkim.jpg/330px-Cherry_Resort_inside_Temi_Tea_Garden%2C_Namchi%2C_Sikkim.jpg)](File:Cherry_Resort_inside_Temi_Tea_Garden,_Namchi,_Sikkim.jpg "A tea garden in Sikkim. India, the world's second-largest producer of tea, is a nation of one billion tea drinkers, who consume 70% of India's tea output.") A tea garden in Sikkim. India, the [world's second-largest producer of tea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_tea_production "List of countries by tea production"), is a nation of one billion tea drinkers, who consume 70% of India's tea output. - [![A panorama of Bangalore, the centre of India's software development economy. In the 1980s, when the first multinational corporations began to set up centres in India, they chose Bangalore because of the large pool of skilled graduates in the area, in turn due to the many science and engineering colleges in the surrounding region.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Bangalore_Panorama_edit1.jpg/960px-Bangalore_Panorama_edit1.jpg)](File:Bangalore_Panorama_edit1.jpg "A panorama of Bangalore, the centre of India's software development economy. In the 1980s, when the first multinational corporations began to set up centres in India, they chose Bangalore because of the large pool of skilled graduates in the area, in turn due to the many science and engineering colleges in the surrounding region.") A panorama of [Bangalore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore "Bangalore"), the centre of India's software development economy. In the 1980s, when the first [multinational corporations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporation "Multinational corporation") began to set up centres in India, they chose Bangalore because of the large pool of skilled graduates in the area, in turn due to the many science and engineering colleges in the surrounding region.[[297]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-ScottGarofoli2007-319) - [![A Chinese fishing net being raised in Kochi. Fishing contributes 1.07% to India's total GDP, and supports over 28 million people, especially within vulnerable communities.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Chinese_Fishing_Net_Raising_Birds_Sunrise_Ashtamudi_Kollam_Mar22_A7C_01784.jpg/330px-Chinese_Fishing_Net_Raising_Birds_Sunrise_Ashtamudi_Kollam_Mar22_A7C_01784.jpg)](File:Chinese_Fishing_Net_Raising_Birds_Sunrise_Ashtamudi_Kollam_Mar22_A7C_01784.jpg "A Chinese fishing net being raised in Kochi. Fishing contributes 1.07% to India's total GDP, and supports over 28 million people, especially within vulnerable communities.") A [Chinese fishing net](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_fishing_nets "Chinese fishing nets") being raised in [Kochi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kochi "Kochi"). Fishing contributes 1.07% to India's total [GDP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product"),[[298]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-:2-320) and supports over 28 million people, especially within vulnerable communities.[[299]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-321) ## Demographics Main article: [Demographics of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_India "Demographics of India") With an estimated 1,428,627,663 residents in 2023, India is the world's most populous country.[[300]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-WPP_UN-322) 1,210,193,422 residents were reported in the [2011 provisional census report](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Census_of_India "2011 Census of India").[[301]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProvisional_Population_Totals_Paper_1_of_2011_India160-323) The median age was 28.7 in 2020.[[270]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECentral_Intelligence_Agency-292) Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "[Green Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India "Green Revolution in India")" have caused India's population to grow rapidly,[[302]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERorabacher201035–39-324) though India's decennial rates of growth are decreasing: its population grew by 17.64% from 2001 to 2011,[[303]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProvisional_Population_Totals_Paper_1_of_2011_India165-325) compared to 21.54% growth in the previous decade (1991–2001).[[303]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProvisional_Population_Totals_Paper_1_of_2011_India165-325) The first post-colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361 million people.[[304]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-326) The [life expectancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_expectancy "Life expectancy") at birth has increased from 49.7 years in 1970–1975 to 72.0 years in 2023.[[305]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-:5-327)[[306]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-328) The under-five [mortality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_mortality "Infant mortality") rate for the country was 113 per 1,000 live births in 1994 whereas in 2018 it reduced to 41.1 per 1,000 live births.[[305]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-:5-327) The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.[[301]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProvisional_Population_Totals_Paper_1_of_2011_India160-323) [Female infanticide in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_India "Female infanticide in India"), and lately [female foeticide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_foeticide_in_India "Female foeticide in India"), have created lop-sided gender ratios; the number of [missing women](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_women "Missing women") in the country quadrupled from 15 million to 63 million during the period 1964–2014, faster than the population growth during the same period.[[307]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-The_Hindu_November_17_2019c-329) According to an Indian government study, an additional 21 million girls are unwanted and do not receive adequate care.[[308]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-The_Guardian_November_17_2019c-330) Despite a government ban on sex-selective foeticide, the practice has far from stopped.[[309]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Foreign_Policy_November_17_2019c-331) Migration from rural to urban areas has been an important dynamic in India's recent history. The number of people living in urban areas grew by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.[[310]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarg2005-332) In 2001, over 70% lived in rural areas.[[311]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDysonVisaria2005115–129-333)[[312]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatna2007271–272-334) The level of urbanisation increased further from 27.81% in the 2001 census to 31.16% in the 2011 census. The slowing down of the overall population growth rate was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991.[[313]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandramouli2011-335) In the 2011 census, there were 53 [million-plus urban agglomerations in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_million-plus_urban_agglomerations_in_India "List of million-plus urban agglomerations in India"). Among them [Mumbai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai "Mumbai"), [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi "Delhi"), [Kolkata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata "Kolkata"), [Chennai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chennai "Chennai"), [Bengaluru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore "Bangalore"), [Hyderabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyderabad "Hyderabad") and [Ahmedabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmedabad "Ahmedabad"), in decreasing order by population.[[314]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-censusindia_2011-336) - [![The historical development of life expectancy in India from 1881 to 2023](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Life-expectancy%2C_1881_to_2023%2C_IND.svg/250px-Life-expectancy%2C_1881_to_2023%2C_IND.svg.png)](File:Life-expectancy,_1881_to_2023,_IND.svg "The historical development of life expectancy in India from 1881 to 2023") The historical development of life expectancy in India from 1881 to 2023 - [![The child mortality rate in India from 1960 to 2023](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Child-mortality_rate_in_india.png/330px-Child-mortality_rate_in_india.png)](File:Child-mortality_rate_in_india.png "The child mortality rate in India from 1960 to 2023") The child mortality rate in India from 1960 to 2023 ### Languages Main article: [Languages of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_India "Languages of India") Languages of India belong to several [language families](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family "Language family"). The [2011 Census of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Census_of_India "2011 Census of India"), the last conducted by the Indian government, gives the following breakdown:[[315]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-jolad-agarwal-337) | Language families and speakers in India[[315]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-jolad-agarwal-337) | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Serial number | Language family | Sub-family | Number of languages | Number of speakers | Percentage of speakers | | 1 | [Indo-European](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages "Indo-European languages") | [Indo-Aryan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages "Indo-Aryan languages") | 21 | 945,052,555 | 78.05% | | 1 | [Indo-European](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages "Indo-European languages") | [Iranian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_languages "Iranian languages") | 1 | 21,677 | 0%[[w]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-338) | | 1 | [Indo-European](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages "Indo-European languages") | [Germanic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languages "Germanic languages") | 1 | 259,678 | 0.02% | | 2 | [Dravidian languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_languages "Dravidian languages") | | 17 | 237,840,116 | 19.64% | | 3 | [Austro-Asiatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Asiatic_languages "Austro-Asiatic languages") | | 14 | 13,493,080 | 1.11% | | 4 | [Tibeto-Burman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages "Tibeto-Burman languages") | | 66 | 12,257,382 | 1.01% | | 5 | [Semito-Hamitic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages "Afroasiatic languages") | | 1 | 54,947 | 0% | There are also small numbers of speakers of [Tai–Kadai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kra–Dai_languages "Kra–Dai languages"), [Andamanese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andamanese_languages "Andamanese languages"), and minor language families and [isolates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_isolate "Language isolate").[[316]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Moseley2008-339): 283 The official language of India's federal government was chosen by the [Constituent Assembly of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_India "Constituent Assembly of India") in September 1949 after three years of debate between two opposing camps. [Hindi language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi_language "Hindi language") protagonists wanted Hindi in the [Devanagari script](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devanagari_script "Devanagari script") to be the sole "national language" of India whereas delegates from South India preferred English to have a place in the Constitution.[[317]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-lerner-Hindi-340)[[318]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-isaka-Hindi-341) The compromise reached declared (i) Hindi to be the "official language" of India's federal government; (ii) English to be an associate official language for 15 years during which Hindi's formal lexicon would be developed; and (iii) the international form of [Hindu–Arabic numerals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu–Arabic_numeral_system "Hindu–Arabic numeral system") to be the official numerals.[[317]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-lerner-Hindi-340)[[318]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-isaka-Hindi-341) The compromise resolution became articles 343–351 of India's constitution, which came into effect on 26 January 1950.[[317]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-lerner-Hindi-340)[[318]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-isaka-Hindi-341) In 1965, after bitter opposition from [South India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_India "South India") to Hindi becoming the sole official language, a compromise was reached to where English would continue to be an "associate official language" indefinitely.[[319]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-342)[[320]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-343) The [Eighth Schedule of India's Constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Schedule_to_the_Constitution_of_India "Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India") also recognises 22 languages, including Hindi but not English, which the government is obligated to develop. These are sometimes called "scheduled languages". This list includes major regional languages, but also others—such as [Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit"), which no longer has [first language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_language "First language") speakers in India, and [Urdu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urdu "Urdu"), which is not region-specific—because of their value to India's cultural heritage.[[321]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-KachruKachru2008-1-344)[[322]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-GazzolaWickström2016-345)[[323]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Groff2017-lead-346) In 1950, there were 14 scheduled languages: [Assamese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assamese_language "Assamese language"), [Bengali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_language "Bengali language"), [Gujarati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarati_language "Gujarati language"), [Hindi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi "Hindi"), [Kannada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannada "Kannada"), [Kashmiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmiri_language "Kashmiri language"), [Malayalam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayalam "Malayalam"), [Marathi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_language "Marathi language"), [Oriya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odia_language "Odia language"), [Punjabi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjabi_language "Punjabi language"), Sanskrit, [Tamil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_language "Tamil language"), [Telugu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telugu_language "Telugu language") and Urdu.[[315]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-jolad-agarwal-337) In the following decades constitutional amendments added others: [Sindhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhi_language "Sindhi language") (1967), [Nepali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepali_language "Nepali language"), [Manipuri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meitei_language "Meitei language"), and [Konkani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkani_language "Konkani language") (1992), [Maithili](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maithili_language "Maithili language"), [Dogri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogri_language "Dogri language"), [Santali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santali_language "Santali language") and [Bodo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boro_language_(India) "Boro language (India)") (2004).[[315]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-jolad-agarwal-337) - [![The regions of first-language speech of the main languages of India](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Language_Map_of_India.jpg/250px-Language_Map_of_India.jpg)](File:Language_Map_of_India.jpg "The regions of first-language speech of the main languages of India") The regions of first-language speech of the main languages of India - [![The main languages of India by relative numbers of speakers](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Indian_Languages_Map.jpg/250px-Indian_Languages_Map.jpg)](File:Indian_Languages_Map.jpg "The main languages of India by relative numbers of speakers") The main languages of India by relative numbers of speakers - [![On the reverse of each of India's paper money notes, the denomination is listed in a panel on the left in 15 languages, in addition to Hindi and English, which appear more prominently elsewhere. These are from top to bottom: 1. Assamese, 2. Bengali, 3. Gujarati, 4. Kannada, 5. Kashmiri, 6. Konkani, 7. Malayalam, 8. Marathi, 9. Nepali, 10. Oriya, 11. Punjabi, 12. Sanskrit, 13. Tamil, 14. Telugu, 15. Urdu.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/India_new_500_INR%2C_MG_series%2C_2016%2C_reverse.jpg/500px-India_new_500_INR%2C_MG_series%2C_2016%2C_reverse.jpg)](File:India_new_500_INR,_MG_series,_2016,_reverse.jpg "On the reverse of each of India's paper money notes, the denomination is listed in a panel on the left in 15 languages, in addition to Hindi and English, which appear more prominently elsewhere. These are from top to bottom: 1. Assamese, 2. Bengali, 3. Gujarati, 4. Kannada, 5. Kashmiri, 6. Konkani, 7. Malayalam, 8. Marathi, 9. Nepali, 10. Oriya, 11. Punjabi, 12. Sanskrit, 13. Tamil, 14. Telugu, 15. Urdu.") On the reverse of each of India's [paper money notes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_money "Paper money"), the denomination is listed in a panel on the left in 15 languages, in addition to Hindi and English, which appear more prominently elsewhere. These are from top to bottom: 1. Assamese, 2. Bengali, 3. Gujarati, 4. Kannada, 5. Kashmiri, 6. Konkani, 7. Malayalam, 8. Marathi, 9. Nepali, 10. Oriya, 11. Punjabi, 12. Sanskrit, 13. Tamil, 14. Telugu, 15. Urdu.[[324]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-rupee-15lang-347) ### Religion Main article: [Religion in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_India "Religion in India") [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion "Religion") in India is characterised by a diversity of beliefs and practices. Throughout India's history, religion has been an important part of its culture. The [Indian subcontinent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent "Indian subcontinent") is the birthplace of four [major world religions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_religious_groups "Major religious groups"): [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism"), [Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism"), [Jainism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism "Jainism"), and [Sikhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism "Sikhism"). India has the largest population of Hindus, Sikhs, and Jains, the third-largest population of Muslims (after [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia") and [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan")) and the ninth largest of Buddhists.[[325]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Firstpost_Aug2016-348) India also has the largest population of people adhering to both [Zoroastrianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism "Zoroastrianism") ([Parsis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsi "Parsi") and [Iranis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irani_(India) "Irani (India)")) and the [Bahá'í Faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baháʼí_Faith_in_India "Baháʼí Faith in India").[[326]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200894-349) The [Preamble to the Constitution of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preamble_to_the_Constitution_of_India "Preamble to the Constitution of India") declares India to be a [secular state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_state "Secular state"),[[327]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-350)[[328]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-351) and [freedom of religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_religion "Freedom of religion") to be a [fundamental right](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights_in_India "Fundamental Rights in India") ("... liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship.")[[329]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-352) According to the 2011 census of India, 79.8% of the [population of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_India "Demographics of India") follows [Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism_in_India "Hinduism in India"), 14.2% [Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_India "Islam in India"), 2.3% [Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_India "Christianity in India"), 1.7% [Sikhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism_in_India "Sikhism in India"), 0.7% [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_India "Buddhism in India") and 0.4% [Jainism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism_in_India "Jainism in India"). Several tribal religions are also present in India, such as [Donyi-Polo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donyi-Polo "Donyi-Polo"), [Sanamahism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanamahism "Sanamahism"), [Sarnaism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarnaism "Sarnaism"), and [Niamtre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niamtre "Niamtre"). - [![Jain pilgrim, Shravanabelagola](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Gomateswara%2C_Shravanabelagola.jpg/120px-Gomateswara%2C_Shravanabelagola.jpg)](File:Gomateswara,_Shravanabelagola.jpg "Jain pilgrim, Shravanabelagola") [Jain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism "Jainism") pilgrim, [Shravanabelagola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shravanabelagola "Shravanabelagola") - [![The exterior of St Judes Church, Chinnathurai](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Front_Judes_Church_Chinnathurai_Tamil_Nadu_crop_Mar24_A7C_10007.jpg/250px-Front_Judes_Church_Chinnathurai_Tamil_Nadu_crop_Mar24_A7C_10007.jpg)](File:Front_Judes_Church_Chinnathurai_Tamil_Nadu_crop_Mar24_A7C_10007.jpg "The exterior of St Judes Church, Chinnathurai") The exterior of St Judes Church, [Chinnathurai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinnathurai "Chinnathurai") - [![Zoroastrian agiary, Mumbai](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Maneckji_Seth_Agiary_in_Fort%2C_Mumbai.jpg/250px-Maneckji_Seth_Agiary_in_Fort%2C_Mumbai.jpg)](File:Maneckji_Seth_Agiary_in_Fort,_Mumbai.jpg "Zoroastrian agiary, Mumbai") [Zoroastrian agiary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maneckji_Seth_Agiary "Maneckji Seth Agiary"), Mumbai - [![A Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple in Amritsar](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Sikh_pilgrim_at_the_Golden_Temple_%28Harmandir_Sahib%29_in_Amritsar%2C_India.jpg/330px-Sikh_pilgrim_at_the_Golden_Temple_%28Harmandir_Sahib%29_in_Amritsar%2C_India.jpg)](File:Sikh_pilgrim_at_the_Golden_Temple_(Harmandir_Sahib)_in_Amritsar,_India.jpg "A Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple in Amritsar") A Sikh pilgrim at the [Golden Temple](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Temple "Golden Temple") in [Amritsar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amritsar "Amritsar") - [![Interior of the Magen David Synagogue, Kolkata](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Magen_David_Synagogue_Interiors_after_restoration.jpg/330px-Magen_David_Synagogue_Interiors_after_restoration.jpg)](File:Magen_David_Synagogue_Interiors_after_restoration.jpg "Interior of the Magen David Synagogue, Kolkata") Interior of the [Magen David Synagogue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magen_David_Synagogue_(Kolkata) "Magen David Synagogue (Kolkata)"), Kolkata ### Education Main article: [Education in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_India "Education in India") See also: [Literacy in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India "Literacy in India") and [History of education in the Indian subcontinent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent "History of education in the Indian subcontinent") The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males.[[330]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProvisional_Population_Totals_Paper_1_of_2011_India163-353) The rural-urban literacy gap, which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, dropped to 16.1 percentage points in 2011. The improvement in the rural literacy rate is twice that of urban areas.[[313]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandramouli2011-335) In 2011 [Kerala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala "Kerala") had the highest literary rate, with 93.91% literacy, and [Bihar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bihar "Bihar") the lowest, with 63.82%.[[330]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEProvisional_Population_Totals_Paper_1_of_2011_India163-353) In 1981 the respective literacy rates for total population, men and women were 41%, 53% and 29%. In 1951, the rates were 18%, 27% and 9%. In 1921, the rates 7%, 12% and 2%. In 1891, they were 5%, 9% and 1%.[[331]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-354)[[332]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-355) According to Latika Chaudhary, in 1911 there were under three primary schools for every ten villages. Statistically, more caste and religious diversity reduced private spending. Primary schools taught literacy, so local diversity limited its growth.[[333]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-356) The education system of India is the world's second-largest.[[334]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-357) India has over 900 universities, 40,000 colleges[[335]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-highered1-358) and 1.5 million schools.[[336]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-359) In India's higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under [affirmative action](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservation_in_India "Reservation in India") policies for the historically disadvantaged. In recent decades India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to [its economic development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_development_in_India "Economic development in India").[[337]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Sify-360)[[338]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-361) - [![Children await school lunch in Rayka (also Raika), a village in Gujarat. The salutation Jai Bhim on the blackboard honours the jurist, social reformer, and Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/47_Raika_School_-_eating_together_%283384824242%29.jpg/250px-47_Raika_School_-_eating_together_%283384824242%29.jpg)](File:47_Raika_School_-_eating_together_(3384824242).jpg "Children await school lunch in Rayka (also Raika), a village in Gujarat. The salutation Jai Bhim on the blackboard honours the jurist, social reformer, and Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar.") Children await school lunch in Rayka (also Raika), a village in Gujarat. The salutation *[Jai Bhim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jai_Bhim "Jai Bhim")* on the blackboard honours the jurist, social reformer, and [Dalit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalit "Dalit") leader [B. R. Ambedkar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar "B. R. Ambedkar"). - [![The Madrasah of the Masjid-i-Ala mosque in Srirangapatna, Karnataka, built in the period 1786–87, during the rule of Tipu Sultan](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Madrasah1.jpg/250px-Madrasah1.jpg)](File:Madrasah1.jpg "The Madrasah of the Masjid-i-Ala mosque in Srirangapatna, Karnataka, built in the period 1786–87, during the rule of Tipu Sultan") The [Madrasah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasah "Madrasah") of the [Masjid-i-Ala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masjid-i-Ala "Masjid-i-Ala") mosque in [Srirangapatna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srirangapatna "Srirangapatna"), Karnataka, built in the period 1786–87, during the rule of [Tipu Sultan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipu_Sultan "Tipu Sultan") - [![IIT Roorkee, formerly the Thomason College of Civil Engineering, is the oldest engineering college in India. It was foundedin 1847 during East India Company rule to train men employed in the construction of the Ganges Canal.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/ThomasonCollegeOfEngineeringRoorkeeEst1847.jpg/250px-ThomasonCollegeOfEngineeringRoorkeeEst1847.jpg)](File:ThomasonCollegeOfEngineeringRoorkeeEst1847.jpg "IIT Roorkee, formerly the Thomason College of Civil Engineering, is the oldest engineering college in India. It was foundedin 1847 during East India Company rule to train men employed in the construction of the Ganges Canal.") [IIT Roorkee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IIT_Roorkee "IIT Roorkee"), formerly the Thomason College of Civil Engineering, is the oldest engineering college in India.[[339]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-hedrick-thomason-362)[[340]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-subram-thomason-363) It was foundedin 1847 during [East India Company rule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company_rule_in_India "Company rule in India") to train men employed in the construction of the [Ganges Canal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges_Canal "Ganges Canal").[[340]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-subram-thomason-363)[[339]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-hedrick-thomason-362) ### Health Main article: [Health in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_in_India "Health in India") [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Female_health_workers_in_India_%2834332433890%29.jpg/250px-Female_health_workers_in_India_%2834332433890%29.jpg)](File:Female_health_workers_in_India_(34332433890).jpg) Immunisation health workers in 2006. Eight years later, and three years after India's last case of polio, the WHO declared India to be polio-free.[[341]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-who-chan-14-feb-2014-364) India bears a disproportionately large burden of the world's [tuberculosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_in_India "Tuberculosis in India") rates, with [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") (WHO) statistics for 2022 estimating 2.8 million new infections annually, accounting for 26% of the global total.[[342]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-365) It is estimated that approximately 40% of the population of India carry [tuberculosis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_tuberculosis "Latent tuberculosis") infection.[[343]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-366) In 2018 [chronic obstructive pulmonary disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease") was the leading cause of death after [heart disease](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_disease_in_India "Heart disease in India"). The 10 [most polluted cities in the world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration "List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration") are all in India with more than 140 million people breathing air 10 times or more over the WHO safe limit. Category: ./Category:All\_articles\_with\_unsourced\_statements Category: ./Category:Articles\_with\_unsourced\_statements\_from\_June\_2026 [*[citation needed](Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*] As of 2026, air quality reports show that not a single Indian city meets the WHO's safety guidelines.[[344]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-367) In cities like Delhi and Mumbai, breathing the air is equivalent to smoking 30 cigarettes a day. Category: ./Category:All\_articles\_with\_unsourced\_statements Category: ./Category:Articles\_with\_unsourced\_statements\_from\_June\_2026 [*[citation needed](Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*] In 2017, air pollution killed 1.24 million Indians.[[345]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-368) ## Culture Main article: [Culture of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_India "Culture of India") ### Society Main articles: [Caste system in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste_system_in_India "Caste system in India") and [Gender inequality in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_inequality_in_India "Gender inequality in India") Although sometimes applied to other cultures and religions, caste is a uniquely Indian, and Hindu, social institution.[[x]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-370) All Hindus fall broadly into four castes, or *[varnas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism) "Varna (Hinduism)")*: [Brahmin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmin "Brahmin"), or priests, at the top; below them [Kshatriya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kshatriya "Kshatriya"), or warriors; further below, [Vaishya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaishya "Vaishya"), or merchants and farmers; and at the bottom, [Shudra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shudra "Shudra"), or the service class. Outside the caste system, and therefore of traditional Hinduism, lie people formerly called "outcastes" or "untouchables," and now [scheduled caste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_caste "Scheduled caste") (a term used in India's constitution) or [Dalit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalit "Dalit"), a later self-description of pride, meaning "broken" or "downtrodden". Each caste is further divided into sub-castes, or [jatis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jāti "Jāti"), many of which are tied to occupations. The custom of [endogamy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogamy "Endogamy"), or marrying within one's subcaste, however, makes caste a hereditary label, not of one occupational choice, and has caused the caste system, therefore, to become entrenched.[[347]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-atrey1-371) The [Constituent Assembly of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituent_Assembly_of_India "Constituent Assembly of India") abolished untouchability in 1947,[[348]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-nyt-india-constit-assmb-caste-372) the [Republic of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_India "Republic of India") did more formally in 1950, and India has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives related to caste. Still, caste-based inequality, discrimination, segregation, and [violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste-related_violence_in_India "Caste-related violence in India") persist.[[349]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-373)[[350]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-374) Multi-generational [patrilineal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrilineal "Patrilineal") [joint families](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_family "Joint family") have been the norm in India, though [nuclear families](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_family "Nuclear family") are becoming common in urban areas.[[351]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakar2007-375) A very large majority of Indians have [their marriages arranged](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arranged_marriage_in_the_Indian_subcontinent "Arranged marriage in the Indian subcontinent") by their parents or family elders.[[352]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedora2003-376) Marriage is thought to be for life;[[352]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedora2003-376) and the divorce rate is extremely low;[[353]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesRamdas2005111-377) less than one in a thousand marriages end in divorce.[[354]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-378) Many women marry before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age; [child marriages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_marriage "Child marriage") are not uncommon, especially in rural areas.[[355]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECullen-Dupont200996-379) In large parts of Hindu northern India, moreover, a form of territorial [exogamy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exogamy "Exogamy") is observed in which a bride marries out of her natal village and her parents do not visit her in her married home; the annual rite [raksha bandhan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raksha_bandhan "Raksha bandhan"), during which married women return to their [natal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth "Birth") homes, has served both to affirm bonds with their natal families and offer a recourse in times of marital stress.[[356]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Agarwal1994-380)[[357]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Coleman2017-381) - [![A Gond tribe member during the Dandari festival in Jainoor, Telangana. The Gond religion predates the Hindu synthesis of the mid-first-millennium BCE.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Closeup_at_Gussadi_dance_performer.jpg/330px-Closeup_at_Gussadi_dance_performer.jpg)](File:Closeup_at_Gussadi_dance_performer.jpg "A Gond tribe member during the Dandari festival in Jainoor, Telangana. The Gond religion predates the Hindu synthesis of the mid-first-millennium BCE.") A [Gond](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondi_people "Gondi people") tribe member during the [Dandari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gussadi_dance "Gussadi dance") festival in [Jainoor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainoor "Jainoor"), Telangana. The Gond religion predates the [Hindu synthesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_synthesis "Hindu synthesis") of the mid-first-millennium BCE. - [![A member of the Ramnami Samaj, a movement among Dalits, whose members worship the Hindu deity Rama and tattoo their bodies with his name](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/A_smiling_member_of_the_Ramnami_Samaj_%28edited%29.jpg/330px-A_smiling_member_of_the_Ramnami_Samaj_%28edited%29.jpg)](File:A_smiling_member_of_the_Ramnami_Samaj_(edited).jpg "A member of the Ramnami Samaj, a movement among Dalits, whose members worship the Hindu deity Rama and tattoo their bodies with his name") A member of the [Ramnami Samaj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramnami_Samaj "Ramnami Samaj"), a movement among [Dalits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalit "Dalit"), whose members worship the Hindu [deity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deity "Deity") [Rama](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama "Rama") and tattoo their bodies with his name - [![A Hindu bride in Ahmedabad, Gujarat](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Hindu_Bride%2C_Ahmedabad%2C_Gujarat.jpg/250px-Hindu_Bride%2C_Ahmedabad%2C_Gujarat.jpg)](File:Hindu_Bride,_Ahmedabad,_Gujarat.jpg "A Hindu bride in Ahmedabad, Gujarat") A Hindu bride in [Ahmedabad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmedabad "Ahmedabad"), Gujarat ### Visual art Main article: [Indian art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_art "Indian art") India has a very ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged many influences with the rest of [Eurasia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasia "Eurasia"), especially in the first millennium. During this period [Buddhist art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_art "Buddhist art") spread with Indian religions to [Central](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia"), [East](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia "East Asia") and [Southeast Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia "Southeast Asia"), the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.[[358]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowland1970185–198,_252,_385–466-382) Thousands of [seals from the Indus Valley civilisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation#Seals "Indus Valley civilisation") of the third millennium BCE have been found, usually carved with animals, but also some with human figures. The [Pashupati seal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashupati_seal "Pashupati seal"), excavated in [Mohenjo-daro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-daro "Mohenjo-daro"), Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the best known.[[359]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraven199714–16-383)[[360]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle199417–18-384) Virtually no art survives from a long period following the Indus Valley Civilisation.[[360]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle199417–18-384)[[361]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowland197046–47-385) Almost all surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious [sculpture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_sculpture "Indian sculpture") in durable materials, or coins. There was probably originally far more in wood, which is lost. In north India [Mauryan art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauryan_art "Mauryan art") is the first imperial movement.[[362]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraven199735–46-386)[[363]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowland197067–70-387)[[364]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle199422–24-388) Over the following centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure developed, with less interest in articulating precise anatomy than [ancient Greek sculpture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture "Ancient Greek sculpture") but showing smoothly flowing forms expressing *prana* ("breath" or life-force).[[365]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraven199722,_88-389)[[366]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowland197035,_99–100-390) This is often complicated by the need to give figures multiple arms or heads, or represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with the [Ardhanarishvara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardhanarishvara "Ardhanarishvara") form of Shiva and [Parvati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parvati "Parvati").[[367]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraven199718–19-391)[[368]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlurton1993151-392) Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated from Buddhist [stupas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupa "Stupa") such as [Sanchi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanchi "Sanchi"), [Sarnath](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarnath "Sarnath") and [Amaravati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaravati_Stupa "Amaravati Stupa"),[[369]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle199432–38-393) or is rock cut [reliefs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief "Relief") at sites such as [Ajanta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajanta_Caves "Ajanta Caves"), [Karla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karla_Caves "Karla Caves") and [Ellora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellora "Ellora"). Hindu and Jain sites appear rather later.[[370]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle199443–55-394)[[371]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowland1970113–119-395) In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, and sculptors probably usually served all communities.[[372]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlurton199310–11-396) [Gupta art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_art "Gupta art"), at its peak c. 300 CE – c. 500 CE, is often regarded as a classical period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance of Hindu sculpture, as at the [Elephanta Caves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephanta_Caves "Elephanta Caves").[[373]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraven1997111–121-397)[[374]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichell200044–70-398) Across the north, this became rather stiff and formulaic after c. 800 CE, though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.[[375]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle1994212–216-399) But in the South, under the [Pallava](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallava_dynasty "Pallava dynasty") and [Chola dynasties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_dynasty "Chola dynasty"), sculpture in both stone and bronze had a [sustained period of great achievement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_art_and_architecture#Sculpture_and_bronzes "Chola art and architecture"); the large bronzes with Shiva as [Nataraja](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nataraja "Nataraja") have become an iconic symbol of India.[[376]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraven1997152–160-400)[[377]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlurton1993225–227-401) Ancient paintings have only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the [Ajanta Caves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajanta_Caves "Ajanta Caves") are some of the most important.[[378]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle1994356–361-402)[[379]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowland1970242–251-403) Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern India from 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. These significantly influenced later artistic styles.[[380]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle1994361–370-404) The Persian-derived [Deccan painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan_painting "Deccan painting"), starting just before the [Mughal miniature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_miniature "Mughal miniature"), between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.[[381]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraven1997202–208-405)[[382]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle1994372–382,_400–406-406) The style spread to Hindu courts, especially [among the Rajputs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajput_painting "Rajput painting"), and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most innovative, with figures such as [Nihâl Chand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihâl_Chand "Nihâl Chand") and [Nainsukh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nainsukh "Nainsukh").[[383]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraven1997222–243-407)[[384]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle1994384–397,_407–420-408) As a market developed among European residents, it was supplied by [Company painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company_painting "Company painting") by Indian artists with considerable Western influence.[[385]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraven1997243-409)[[386]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichell2000210-410) In the 19th century, cheap [Kalighat paintings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalighat_painting "Kalighat painting") of gods and everyday life, done on paper, were urban [folk art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_art "Folk art") from [Calcutta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcutta "Calcutta"), which later saw the [Bengal School of Art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_School_of_Art "Bengal School of Art"), reflecting the art colleges founded by the British, the first movement in [modern Indian painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Indian_painting "Modern Indian painting").[[387]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichell2000210–211-411)[[388]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlurton1993211-412) - [![Bhutesvara Yakshis, Buddhist reliefs from Mathura, 2nd century CE](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Bhutesvara_Yakshis_Mathura_reliefs_2nd_century_CE_front.jpg/250px-Bhutesvara_Yakshis_Mathura_reliefs_2nd_century_CE_front.jpg)](File:Bhutesvara_Yakshis_Mathura_reliefs_2nd_century_CE_front.jpg "Bhutesvara Yakshis, Buddhist reliefs from Mathura, 2nd century CE") [Bhutesvara Yakshis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutesvara_Yakshis "Bhutesvara Yakshis"), Buddhist reliefs from [Mathura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathura "Mathura"), 2nd century CE - [![Gupta terracotta relief, Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi, 5th century](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/MET_DT5237_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-MET_DT5237_%28cropped%29.jpg)](File:MET_DT5237_(cropped).jpg "Gupta terracotta relief, Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi, 5th century") [Gupta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_art "Gupta art") [terracotta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terracotta "Terracotta") relief, *[Krishna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna "Krishna") Killing the [Horse Demon Keshi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keshi_(demon) "Keshi (demon)")*, 5th century - [![Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids, Kangra painting, 1775–1785](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Unknown%2C_Kangra%2C_India_-_Krishna_Fluting_to_the_Milkmaids_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/250px-Unknown%2C_Kangra%2C_India_-_Krishna_Fluting_to_the_Milkmaids_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)](File:Unknown,_Kangra,_India_-_Krishna_Fluting_to_the_Milkmaids_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg "Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids, Kangra painting, 1775–1785") *Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids*, [Kangra painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangra_painting "Kangra painting"), 1775–1785 - [![Chola bronze of Shiva as Nataraja ("Lord of Dance"), Tamil Nadu, 10th or 11th century](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Shiva_as_Lord_of_the_Dance_%28Nataraja%29.jpg/250px-Shiva_as_Lord_of_the_Dance_%28Nataraja%29.jpg)](File:Shiva_as_Lord_of_the_Dance_(Nataraja).jpg "Chola bronze of Shiva as Nataraja (\"Lord of Dance\"), Tamil Nadu, 10th or 11th century") [Chola bronze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_art_and_architecture#Sculpture_and_bronzes "Chola art and architecture") of [Shiva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiva "Shiva") as [Nataraja](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nataraja "Nataraja") ("Lord of Dance"), [Tamil Nadu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu"), 10th or 11th century ### Mathematics Main articles: [Indian mathematics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_mathematics "Indian mathematics") and [Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics "Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics") Significant mathematics began in India in the first millennium BCE. The *[Śulba Sūtras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shulba_Sutras "Shulba Sutras")* (literally, "Aphorisms of the Chords" in [Vedic Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit "Vedic Sanskrit")) (c. 700–400 BCE) contain the earliest extant verbal expression of the [Pythagorean theorem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem "Pythagorean theorem") (although very likely it had been known to the [Old Babylonians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty "First Babylonian dynasty").)[[389]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-hayashi2005-p363-413)[[y]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-416) All mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE; thereafter, they were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form. The oldest extant mathematical document produced on the Indian subcontinent is the birch bark [Bakhshali manuscript](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakhshali_manuscript "Bakhshali manuscript") from the 7th century CE.[[392]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-hayashi95-417)[[393]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-plofker-brit6-418) In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1200 CE), important contributions were made by [Aryabhata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata "Aryabhata"), [Brahmagupta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmagupta "Brahmagupta"), [Bhaskara II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhaskara_II "Bhaskara II"), [Varāhamihira](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varāhamihira "Varāhamihira"), and [Madhava](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhava_of_Sangamagrama "Madhava of Sangamagrama"). The [decimal number system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal "Decimal") in use today[[394]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-irfah346-419) was first recorded in Indian mathematics.[[395]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-420) Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of [zero](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0_(number) "0 (number)") as a number,[[396]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-bourbaki46-421) [negative numbers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_numbers "Negative numbers"),[[397]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-bourbaki49-422) [arithmetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic "Arithmetic"), and [algebra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra "Algebra").[[398]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-concise-britannica-423) [Trigonometry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometry "Trigonometry")[[399]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-424) was further advanced in India, and the modern definitions of [sine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine "Sine") and [cosine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosine "Cosine") were developed there.[[400]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-425) These mathematical concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe.[[398]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-concise-britannica-423) A later landmark in Indian mathematics was the development of the [series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_(mathematics) "Series (mathematics)") expansions for [trigonometric functions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometric_function "Trigonometric function") (sine, cosine, and [arc tangent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_tangent "Arc tangent")) by mathematicians of the [Kerala school](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics "Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics") in the 15th century CE. Their work, completed two centuries before the invention of [calculus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus "Calculus") in Europe, provided the first example of a [power series](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_series "Power series").[[z]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-426)[[401]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-427) In the modern era [Srinivasa Ramanujan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srinivasa_Ramanujan "Srinivasa Ramanujan") made fundamental contributions to [number theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory "Number theory").[[402]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-hardy-ramanumajan-notice-428) ### Music Main article: [Music of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_India "Music of India") India contains a wide array of musical practices, including many different [folk musics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_folk_music "Indian folk music") from different regions. [Indian classical music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_classical_music "Indian classical music") has Vedic origins, and split in the 13th century into the two main traditions of [Hindustani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani_classical_music "Hindustani classical music") and [Carnatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnatic_music "Carnatic music") music. Hindustani is associated with North India and is more [improvisational](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_improvisation "Musical improvisation"), featuring instruments such as the [sitar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitar "Sitar") and [tabla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabla "Tabla"), and Carnatic is South Indian and more focused on written [compositions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_composition "Musical composition") such as the *[kriti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriti_(music) "Kriti (music)")*, while both styles contain common elements such as the [raga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raga "Raga") melodic framework and [tala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tala_(music) "Tala (music)") rhythmic meter.[[403]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-429) Indian music has influenced western genres, including [rock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music "Rock music") and [jazz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") musicians during the [1960s counterculture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s "Counterculture of the 1960s").[[404]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-430) [Indian film music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_film_music "Indian film music") is music written for [Indian cinema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_India "Cinema of India"), generally composed by [music directors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_film_music_directors "List of Indian film music directors") and sung by [playback singers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playback_singers "Playback singers"). Modern [Indian pop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_pop "Indian pop") takes influences from classical, folk, and western pop music.[[405]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-431) - [![M. S. Subbulakshmi, Carnatic music vocalist](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Sakunthala_1940_filmposter_%282%29.jpg/120px-Sakunthala_1940_filmposter_%282%29.jpg)](File:Sakunthala_1940_filmposter_(2).jpg "M. S. Subbulakshmi, Carnatic music vocalist") [M. S. Subbulakshmi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._S._Subbulakshmi "M. S. Subbulakshmi"), Carnatic music vocalist - [![Carnatic music mridangam player Palghat Mani Iyer (left), with violinists, l. to r.: L. Vaidyanathan, L. Subramaniam, and L. Shankar.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/L_Vaidyanathan%2C_L_Subramaniam_and_L_Shankar_trio_with_Palghat_Mani_Iyer_on_Mridangam.jpg/330px-L_Vaidyanathan%2C_L_Subramaniam_and_L_Shankar_trio_with_Palghat_Mani_Iyer_on_Mridangam.jpg)](File:L_Vaidyanathan,_L_Subramaniam_and_L_Shankar_trio_with_Palghat_Mani_Iyer_on_Mridangam.jpg "Carnatic music mridangam player Palghat Mani Iyer (left), with violinists, l. to r.: L. Vaidyanathan, L. Subramaniam, and L. Shankar.") Carnatic music [mridangam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mridangam "Mridangam") player [Palghat Mani Iyer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palghat_Mani_Iyer "Palghat Mani Iyer") (left), with violinists, l. to r.: [L. Vaidyanathan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._Vaidyanathan "L. Vaidyanathan"), [L. Subramaniam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._Subramaniam "L. Subramaniam"), and [L. Shankar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._Shankar "L. Shankar"). - [![Allauddin Khan, Hindustani classical music sarod player and teacher](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Allaudin_Khan.jpg/250px-Allaudin_Khan.jpg)](File:Allaudin_Khan.jpg "Allauddin Khan, Hindustani classical music sarod player and teacher") [Allauddin Khan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allauddin_Khan "Allauddin Khan"), [Hindustani classical music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani_classical_music "Hindustani classical music") [sarod](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarod "Sarod") player and teacher - [![Ravi Shankar playing the sitar at the Woodstock music festival, 1972](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ravi_Shankar.jpg/250px-Ravi_Shankar.jpg)](File:Ravi_Shankar.jpg "Ravi Shankar playing the sitar at the Woodstock music festival, 1972") [Ravi Shankar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravi_Shankar "Ravi Shankar") playing the [sitar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitar "Sitar") at the [Woodstock music festival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodstock_music_festival "Woodstock music festival"), 1972 ### Dance Main article: [Dance in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance_in_India "Dance in India") Dance in India has drawn heavily from [Indian classical dance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_classical_dance "Indian classical dance") traditions. Many of these in turn arose in temples or other religious contexts. Their sponsorship and promotion, however, has continued in secular, modern India.[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432)[[aa]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-433) India also has local and modern dance traditions.[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432) Whether a dance is classical is determined by the [Sangeet Natak Academi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangeet_Natak_Academi "Sangeet Natak Academi"), the Indian government's organisation for performing arts.[[ab]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-434) Although more dances could perhaps meet the criteria for classical, the Akademi has chosen eight.[[ac]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-435) Classical Dances of India[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432)[[407]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-436) | Serial number | Dance | Indigenous to: State | Region | Type or origin | Musical accompaniment | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | [Bharatanatyam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharatanatyam "Bharatanatyam") | [Tamil Nadu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu") | [South India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_India "South India") | Temple dance | [Cinna Melam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melam "Melam"), [Carnatic music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnatic_music "Carnatic music") | | 2 | [Kathak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathak "Kathak") | [Uttar Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh "Uttar Pradesh") | [North India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_India "North India") | [Court dance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_dance "Court dance") | [Hindustani music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani_music "Hindustani music") | | 3 | [Kathakali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathakali "Kathakali") | [Kerala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala "Kerala") | South India | Dance-drama | [Madhalam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhalam "Madhalam") drum ensembles; [Sopana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopana_Sangeetham "Sopana Sangeetham") vocal music | | 4 | [Kuchipudi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuchipudi "Kuchipudi") | [Andhra Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh "Andhra Pradesh") | South India | Dance-drama | Carnatic music ensemble | | 5 | [Manipuri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipuri_dance "Manipuri dance") | [Manipur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur "Manipur") | [Northeast India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_India "Northeast India") | Temple/ritual dance | Ensemble comprising [Pung Cholom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pung_Cholom "Pung Cholom"), flutes, trumpets, [Tambura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanbur "Tanbur"), [Pena](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pena_(musical_instrument) "Pena (musical instrument)"), and cymbals | | 6 | [Mohiniattam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohiniattam "Mohiniattam") | Kerala | South India | Dance-drama | Carnatic ensemble | | 7 | [Odissi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odissi "Odissi") | [Odisha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odisha "Odisha") | [East India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India "East India") | Temple dance | Ensemble of Hindustani music instruments: [pakhavaj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakhavaj "Pakhavaj"), [sitar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitar "Sitar"), flute, cymbals, [harmonium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonium "Harmonium") | | 8 | [Sattriya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sattriya "Sattriya") | [Assam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam "Assam") | Northeast India | Dance-drama | [Borgeet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borgeet "Borgeet") accompanied by [khol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khol "Khol") drums and cymbals. | The best-known classical dance is Bharatnatyam, which began in the temple dances of [Tamil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_people "Tamil people") [devadasis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devadasi "Devadasi").[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432) Identified with "prostitutes and courtesans", their dancing was formally banned in 1947.[[ad]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-437) Concurrently, the dance was rehabilitated as a "pure" art form, with [Rukmini Devi Arundale](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rukmini_Devi_Arundale "Rukmini Devi Arundale") as a prominent figure. A devdasi who went on to attain national and international prominence was [Thanjavur Balasaraswati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balasaraswati "Balasaraswati").[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432) Some sources consider the dance-dramas [Chhau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhau_dance "Chhau dance") of [Jharkhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jharkhand "Jharkhand"), [West Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengal "West Bengal"), and [Odisha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odisha "Odisha") and [Yakshagana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakshagana "Yakshagana") of [Karnataka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka") to also belong to the classical tradition.[[408]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-burch-2013-438) Local dance traditions vary widely across India. In addition to the dance-dramas Chhau and Yakshagana, they include dance-dramas [Raslila](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raslila "Raslila") of western [Uttar Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh "Uttar Pradesh") and [Terukkuttu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terukkuttu "Terukkuttu") of Tamil Nadu; calendrical and festival dances such as the [Bhangra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhangra_(dance) "Bhangra (dance)") of Punjab, especially at [Vaisakhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaisakhi "Vaisakhi"), the onset of spring, and [Garba](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garba_(dance) "Garba (dance)") of [Gujarat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarat "Gujarat") during [Navratri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navratri "Navratri"); and tribal or [Adivasi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adivasi "Adivasi") dances, such as those of the [Santal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santal "Santal") and [Toda people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toda_people "Toda people"), the latter, for example, in honour of the god [Ön](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toda_people#Religion "Toda people") who brought buffalo to earth.[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432) Among 20th-century directions is the [modern dance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_dance "Modern dance") of [Uday Shankar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uday_Shankar "Uday Shankar") in which classical styles were employed but not adhered to rigidly. Examples are dance-dramas based on the ancient Indian [animal fables](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_fable "Animal fable"), *[Panchatantra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchatantra "Panchatantra")*, and Nehru's mid-century meditation on Indian history, *[The Discovery of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Discovery_of_India "The Discovery of India")*.[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432) Dance has been an essential aspect of Indian films from the first [talkies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talkies "Talkies") of the 1930s. The individual and group dances of [Bollywood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bollywood "Bollywood"), for example, show a broad range of influences, including classical, local, and Western popular dance.[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432) Towards the end of the 20th century, innovations in [British South Asian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_South_Asian "British South Asian") music and dance, such as [Post-Bhangra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1990s)#Post-Bhangra "Music of the United Kingdom (1990s)"), fed back into dance in India.[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432) - [![The Kathakali dance of Kerala](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Kathakali_of_Kerala_at_Nishagandhi_dance_festival_2024_%28266%29.jpg/330px-Kathakali_of_Kerala_at_Nishagandhi_dance_festival_2024_%28266%29.jpg)](File:Kathakali_of_Kerala_at_Nishagandhi_dance_festival_2024_(266).jpg "The Kathakali dance of Kerala") The *Kathakali* dance of [Kerala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala "Kerala") - [![The Bharatanatyam dance of Tamil Nadu](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bharata_Natyam_Performance_DS.jpg/120px-Bharata_Natyam_Performance_DS.jpg)](File:Bharata_Natyam_Performance_DS.jpg "The Bharatanatyam dance of Tamil Nadu") The *Bharatanatyam* dance of [Tamil Nadu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu") - [![The Kathak dance of northern India absorbed Persian and Central Asian influences during Mughal rule.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Kathak_Solo_Performance_%288%29.jpg/330px-Kathak_Solo_Performance_%288%29.jpg)](File:Kathak_Solo_Performance_(8).jpg "The Kathak dance of northern India absorbed Persian and Central Asian influences during Mughal rule.") The *Kathak* dance of northern India absorbed Persian and Central Asian influences during [Mughal rule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire"). ### Clothing Main article: [Clothing in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothing_in_India "Clothing in India") [![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/India_School.jpg/250px-India_School.jpg)](File:India_School.jpg) Women in [sari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sari "Sari") at an adult literacy class in [Tamil Nadu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu") From ancient times until the advent of the modern, the most widely worn traditional dress in India was [draped](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draped_garment "Draped garment").[[409]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Tarlo1996-26-439) For women it took the form of a [sari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sari "Sari"), a single piece of cloth many yards long.[[409]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Tarlo1996-26-439) The sari was traditionally wrapped around the lower body and the shoulder.[[409]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Tarlo1996-26-439) In its modern form, it is combined with an underskirt, or Indian [petticoat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petticoat#Asian_petticoats "Petticoat"), and tucked in along the waist band for more secure fastening. It is also commonly worn with an Indian [blouse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blouse "Blouse"), or [choli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choli "Choli"), which serves as the primary upper-body garment, the sari's end—passing over the shoulder—covering the midriff and obscuring the upper body's contours.[[409]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Tarlo1996-26-439) For men, a similar but shorter length of cloth, the [dhoti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhoti "Dhoti"), has served as a lower-body garment.[[410]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Tarlo1996-26-28-440) The use of stitched clothes became widespread after Muslim rule was established by the [Delhi sultanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_sultanate "Delhi sultanate") (c. 1300 CE) and continued by the [Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") (c. 1525 CE).[[411]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Rahman-Alkazi2002-441) Among the garments introduced during this time and still commonly worn are: the [shalwars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalwar_kameez "Shalwar kameez") and [pyjamas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyjama "Pyjama"), both styles of trousers, and the tunics [kurta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurta "Kurta") and [kameez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kameez "Kameez").[[411]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Rahman-Alkazi2002-441) Shalwars are atypically wide at the waist but narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.[[412]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-StevensonWaite2011-442) When the pants are cut quite narrow, on the [bias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_(textile)#Bias "Grain (textile)"), they are called [churidars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churidar "Churidar"). The kameez is a long shirt or tunic.[[413]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-StevensonWaite2011-b-443) Its side seams left open below the waistline.[[414]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-444) The kurta is traditionally collarless and made of cotton or silk; it is worn plain or with embroidered decoration, such as [chikankari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chikankari "Chikankari"); and typically falls to either just above or just below the wearer's knees.[[415]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Shukla2015-445) In the last 50 years, fashions have changed a great deal in India. Increasingly, in urban northern India, the sari is no longer the apparel of everyday wear, though they remain popular on formal occasions. The traditional shalwar kameez is rarely worn by younger urban women, who favour churidars or jeans. In office settings, ubiquitous air conditioning allows men to wear sports jackets year-round. For weddings and formal occasions, men in the middle and upper classes often wear bandhgala, or short [Nehru jackets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nehru_jackets "Nehru jackets"), with pants, with the groom and his [groomsmen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groomsmen "Groomsmen") sporting [sherwanis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherwani "Sherwani") and churidars.[[416]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Dwyer2014-446) - [![A man in dhoti and woollen shawl in Varanasi](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Water_pump%2C_Varanasi_%2815563170660%29_Cropped.jpg/120px-Water_pump%2C_Varanasi_%2815563170660%29_Cropped.jpg)](File:Water_pump,_Varanasi_(15563170660)_Cropped.jpg "A man in dhoti and woollen shawl in Varanasi") A man in [dhoti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhoti "Dhoti") and woollen shawl in [Varanasi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varanasi "Varanasi") - [![Female tourists from Manipur in shawl and phanek—lower-body garment similar to a sarong](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/GroupFromNorthEastIndiaAtTaj.jpg/250px-GroupFromNorthEastIndiaAtTaj.jpg)](File:GroupFromNorthEastIndiaAtTaj.jpg "Female tourists from Manipur in shawl and phanek—lower-body garment similar to a sarong") Female tourists from [Manipur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur "Manipur") in shawl and [phanek](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phanek "Phanek")—lower-body garment similar to a [sarong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarong "Sarong")[[417]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-phanek-447) - [![Women in shalwar-kameez in Puducherry](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Women_of_Puducherry.jpg/250px-Women_of_Puducherry.jpg)](File:Women_of_Puducherry.jpg "Women in shalwar-kameez in Puducherry") Women in [shalwar-kameez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalwar-kameez "Shalwar-kameez") in [Puducherry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puducherry_(union_territory) "Puducherry (union territory)") ### Cuisine Main article: [Indian cuisine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_cuisine "Indian cuisine") [![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Making_Khameeri_Roti_in_Tandoor_in_Turkman_Gate_Old_Delhi.webm/250px--Making_Khameeri_Roti_in_Tandoor_in_Turkman_Gate_Old_Delhi.webm.jpg)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Making_Khameeri_Roti_in_Tandoor_in_Turkman_Gate_Old_Delhi.webm) A tandoor chef in [Turkman Gate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkman_Gate "Turkman Gate"), [Old Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Delhi "Old Delhi"), makes *khameri roti*, a Muslim-influenced style of [leavened bread](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread#Leavening "Bread").[[ae]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-449)[[419]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Panjabi1995-450) The foundation of a typical Indian meal is a cereal cooked plainly and complemented with savoury dishes.[[420]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Davidson2014-p409-451) The cooked cereal could be steamed rice; [chapati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapati "Chapati"), a thin unleavened bread;[[421]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Davidson2014-p161-452) [idli](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idli "Idli"), a steamed breakfast cake; or [dosa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dosa_(food) "Dosa (food)"), a griddled pancake.[[422]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-tamang-yeast-idlidosa-453) The savoury dishes might include [lentils](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lentil "Lentil"), [pulses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulses "Pulses"), vegetables, meat, poultry and fish commonly spiced with [ginger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginger_root "Ginger root") and [garlic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garlic "Garlic"), but also [coriander](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriander "Coriander"), [cumin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumin "Cumin"), [turmeric](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turmeric "Turmeric"), [cinnamon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamon "Cinnamon"), [cardamom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardamom "Cardamom") and others.[[420]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Davidson2014-p409-451) In some instances, the ingredients may be mixed during the cooking process.[[423]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-jhala-princely-biryani-454) India has distinctive vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.[[424]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Davidson2014-p410-455) About 20% to 39% of India's population consists of vegetarians.[[425]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-456)[[426]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-457) Although meat is eaten widely, the proportional consumption of meat is low.[[427]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-SahakianSaloma2016-50-458) The most significant import of cooking techniques into India during the last millennium occurred during the [Mughal Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire"), spreading into northern India from regions to its northwest,[[428]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-CollinghamCollingham2007-459) along with dishes such as [pilaf](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilaf "Pilaf").[[429]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoger2000-460)[[430]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-sengupta-74-461) Onions, garlic, almonds, and spices were added to the simple yogurt marinade of Persia.[[428]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-CollinghamCollingham2007-459) Rice was partially cooked and layered alternately with sauteed meat, the pot sealed tightly, and slow cooked according to another Persian cooking technique, to produce [biryani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biryani "Biryani"),[[428]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-CollinghamCollingham2007-459) a feature of festive dining in many parts of India.[[431]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-nandy2004-462) The diversity of Indian food served worldwide has been partially concealed by the dominance of [Punjabi cuisine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjabi_cuisine "Punjabi cuisine"). The popularity of [tandoori chicken](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tandoori_chicken "Tandoori chicken")—cooked in a [tandoor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tandoor "Tandoor") oven, which had traditionally been used for baking bread in the rural Punjab and the Delhi region, especially among Muslims, but which is originally from [Central Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia")—dates to the 1950s, and was caused in large part by an entrepreneurial response among people from the Punjab who had been displaced by the 1947 partition.[[424]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Davidson2014-p410-455) - [![South Indian vegetarian thali, or platter](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/South_Indian_Thali_Cropped.jpg/330px-South_Indian_Thali_Cropped.jpg)](File:South_Indian_Thali_Cropped.jpg "South Indian vegetarian thali, or platter") South Indian vegetarian [thali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thali "Thali"), or platter - [![Machher jhol, a spicy fish curry eaten in eastern India, Nepal, and Bangladesh](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Pabda_Jhaal_-_Home-_Kolkata_-_West_Bengal.jpg/330px-Pabda_Jhaal_-_Home-_Kolkata_-_West_Bengal.jpg)](File:Pabda_Jhaal_-_Home-_Kolkata_-_West_Bengal.jpg "Machher jhol, a spicy fish curry eaten in eastern India, Nepal, and Bangladesh") [Machher jhol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machher_jhol "Machher jhol"), a spicy fish curry eaten in eastern India, Nepal, and Bangladesh - [![Mango, the national fruit of India, is eaten widely in the summer months.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Khairdeen%2C_alias_Pritam%2C_relishing_a_mango_at_the_dusk_of_his_life_05.jpg/330px-Khairdeen%2C_alias_Pritam%2C_relishing_a_mango_at_the_dusk_of_his_life_05.jpg)](File:Khairdeen,_alias_Pritam,_relishing_a_mango_at_the_dusk_of_his_life_05.jpg "Mango, the national fruit of India, is eaten widely in the summer months.") [Mango](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mango "Mango"), the national fruit of India, is eaten widely in the summer months.[[432]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-mango-national-fruit-463)[[af]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-466) ### Sports Main article: [Sport in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_India "Sport in India") Several traditional indigenous sports such as *[kabaddi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabaddi "Kabaddi")*, *[kho kho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kho_kho "Kho kho")*, *[pehlwani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pehlwani "Pehlwani")* and *[gilli-danda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilli-danda "Gilli-danda")*, and also [martial arts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_martial_arts "Indian martial arts"), such as *[Kalarippayattu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalarippayattu "Kalarippayattu")* and *[marma adi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marma_adi "Marma adi")* remain popular. [Chess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess "Chess") is commonly held to have [originated in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chess#India "History of chess") as *[chaturaṅga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaturanga "Chaturanga")*;[[435]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolpert20032-467) There has been a rise in the number of Indian [grandmasters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandmaster_(chess) "Grandmaster (chess)").[[436]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERediff_2008_b-468) [Viswanathan Anand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viswanathan_Anand "Viswanathan Anand") became the undisputed [Chess World Champion in 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Chess_Championship_2007 "World Chess Championship 2007") and held the status until 2013.[[437]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-469) [Parcheesi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parcheesi "Parcheesi") is derived from *[Pachisi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachisi "Pachisi")* another traditional Indian pastime, which in early modern times was played on a giant marble court by [Mughal emperor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") [Akbar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akbar "Akbar").[[438]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBinmore200798-470) [Cricket](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricket_in_India "Cricket in India") is the most popular sport in India.[[439]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-471) [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_national_cricket_team "India national cricket team") is one of the more successful cricket teams, having won two [Cricket World Cups](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricket_World_Cup "Cricket World Cup"), three [T20 World Cups](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men's_T20_World_Cup "Men's T20 World Cup"), and three [Champions Trophies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICC_Champions_Trophy "ICC Champions Trophy"). [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_men's_national_field_hockey_team "India men's national field hockey team") has won a record eight [field hockey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_hockey "Field hockey") gold medals in the [summer Olympics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_hockey_at_the_Summer_Olympics "Field hockey at the Summer Olympics").[[440]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-472) - [![The Indian hockey team, captained by Dhyan Chand (standing second from l.), after winning the finals at the 1936 Summer Olympics – their third of six consecutive Olympic golds](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Indian-Hockey-Team-Berlin-1936.jpg/330px-Indian-Hockey-Team-Berlin-1936.jpg)](File:Indian-Hockey-Team-Berlin-1936.jpg "The Indian hockey team, captained by Dhyan Chand (standing second from l.), after winning the finals at the 1936 Summer Olympics – their third of six consecutive Olympic golds") The Indian hockey team, captained by [Dhyan Chand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhyan_Chand "Dhyan Chand") (standing second from l.), after winning the finals at the [1936 Summer Olympics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics "1936 Summer Olympics") – their third of six consecutive Olympic golds - [![Gukesh Dommaraju, the reigning world chess champion](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/President_of_Bharat_Smt._Droupadi_Murmu_confers_Major_Dhyan_Chand_Khel_Ratna_Award_on_Shri_Gukesh_Dommaraju.jpg/120px-President_of_Bharat_Smt._Droupadi_Murmu_confers_Major_Dhyan_Chand_Khel_Ratna_Award_on_Shri_Gukesh_Dommaraju.jpg)](File:President_of_Bharat_Smt._Droupadi_Murmu_confers_Major_Dhyan_Chand_Khel_Ratna_Award_on_Shri_Gukesh_Dommaraju.jpg "Gukesh Dommaraju, the reigning world chess champion") [Gukesh Dommaraju](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gukesh_Dommaraju "Gukesh Dommaraju"), the reigning world chess champion[[441]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-guardian-gukesh-473) - [![Indian cricket player Sachin Tendulkar, the highest run-getter in test cricket, playing a defensive stroke against Australia in Bangalore, 2010](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Sachin_defends_the_ball.jpg/500px-Sachin_defends_the_ball.jpg)](File:Sachin_defends_the_ball.jpg "Indian cricket player Sachin Tendulkar, the highest run-getter in test cricket, playing a defensive stroke against Australia in Bangalore, 2010") Indian [cricket](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricket "Cricket") player [Sachin Tendulkar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachin_Tendulkar "Sachin Tendulkar"), the highest [run](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run_(cricket) "Run (cricket)")-getter in [test cricket](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_cricket "Test cricket"), playing a defensive stroke against Australia in [Bangalore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore "Bangalore"), 2010 ## See also - ![flag](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/40px-Flag_of_India.svg.png)[India portal](Portal:India "Portal:India") - [![icon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/P_countries-vector.svg/40px-P_countries-vector.svg.png)](File:P_countries-vector.svg)[Countries portal](Portal:Countries "Portal:Countries") - [![icon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/40px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png)](File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg)[Asia portal](Portal:Asia "Portal:Asia") - [Greater India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_India "Greater India") - [Outline of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_India "Outline of India") ## Notes 1. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-2) Originally written in [Sanskritised Bengali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadhu_bhasha "Sadhu bhasha") and adopted as the national anthem in its Hindi translation 2. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-6) Written in a mixture of Sanskrit and [Sanskritised Bengali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadhu_bhasha "Sadhu bhasha") 3. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-8) "[...] *Jana Gana Mana* is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song *Vande Mataram*, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with *Jana Gana Mana* and shall have equal status with it."[[5]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConstituent_Assembly_of_India1950-7) 4. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-11) According to [Part XVII of the Constitution of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part_XVII_of_the_Constitution_of_India "Part XVII of the Constitution of India"), [Hindi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Hindi "Standard Hindi") in the [Devanagari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devanagari "Devanagari") script is the [official language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_language "Official language") of the Union, along with [English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_English "Indian English") as an additional official language.[[1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTENational_Informatics_Centre2005-1)[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMinistry_of_Home_Affairs_1960-9)[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-india.gov.in2-10) [States and union territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India "States and union territories of India") can have a different official language of their own other than Hindi or English. 5. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-14) Not all the state-level official languages are in the eighth schedule and not all the scheduled languages are state-level official languages. For example, the [Sindhi language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhi_language "Sindhi language") is an 8th scheduled but not a state-level official language. 6. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-15) [Kashmiri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmiri_language "Kashmiri language") and [Dogri language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogri_language "Dogri language") are the official languages of [Jammu and Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory) "Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)") which is currently a [union territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_territory "Union territory") and no longer the [former state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(state) "Jammu and Kashmir (state)"). 7. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-17) - According to [Ethnologue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnologue "Ethnologue"), there are 426 living indigenous languages in India, in contrast to 11 extinct indigenous languages. In addition, there are 32 living non-indigenous languages.[[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-16) - Different sources give widely differing figures, primarily based on how the terms "language" and "dialect" are defined and grouped. 8. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-20) "The country's exact size is subject to debate because some borders are disputed. The Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 km2 (1,269,220 sq mi) and the total land area as 3,060,500 km2 (1,181,700 sq mi); the United Nations lists the total area as 3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219 sq mi) and total land area as 2,973,190 km2 (1,147,960 sq mi)."[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTELibrary_of_Congress2004-19) 9. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-27) See [Date and time notation in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_and_time_notation_in_India "Date and time notation in India"). 10. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-28) [ISO 15919](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_15919 "ISO 15919"): *Bhārat Gaṇarājya* 11. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-35) The [Government of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") also regards [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") as a bordering country, as it considers all of [Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir "Kashmir") to be part of India.[[24]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-34) However, this is [disputed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir_conflict "Kashmir conflict"), and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan. 12. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-51) "A Chinese pilgrim also recorded evidence of the caste system as he could observe it. According to this evidence the treatment meted out to untouchables such as the Chandalas was very similar to that which they experienced in later periods. This would contradict assertions that this rigid form of the caste system emerged in India only as a reaction to the Islamic conquest."[[39]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2016122–123-50) 13. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-94) "All these achievements are dwarfed, though, by the Sanskrit linguistic tradition culminating in the famous grammar by Pāṇini, known as the Aṣṭhādhyāyī. The elegance and comprehensiveness of its architecture have yet to be surpassed by any grammar of any language, and its ingenious methods of stratifying out use and mention, language and metalanguage, and theorem and metatheorem predate key discoveries in western philosophy by millennia."[[81]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Evans-2009-93) 14. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-96) the historic religion of the [Vedas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas "Vedas"), and the precursor to [Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") 15. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-100) The Mauryan economy was helped by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, creeds that promoted nonviolence, proscribed ostentation, or superfluous sacrifices and rituals, and reduced the costs of economic transactions; by coinage that increased economic accommodation in the region; and by the use of writing, which might have boosted more intricate business dealings.[[85]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoy201228-99) 16. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-102) To promote movement and trade, the Mauryans built roads, most prominently a chiefly winter-time road—the Uttarapath—which connected eastern Afghanistan to their capital [Pataliputra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patliputra "Patliputra"), during the time of year when the water levels in the intersecting rivers were low, and they could be easily [forded](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_(crossing) "Ford (crossing)").[[86]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIori2023184,_219-101) 17. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-117) When [Harsha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsha "Harsha") of [Kannauj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannauj "Kannauj"), who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the [Chalukya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty "Chalukya dynasty") ruler of the Deccan. When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the [Pala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pala_Empire "Pala Empire") king of [Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal "Bengal"). When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the [Pallavas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallava_dynasty "Pallava dynasty") from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the [Pandyas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandya_dynasty "Pandya dynasty") and the [Cholas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_dynasty "Chola dynasty") from still farther south.[[100]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStein2010115–116-116) 18. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-123) Central Asian warriors became supreme during South Asia's medieval transition by deploying swift-horse cavalry skilled in firing arrows at full gallop, volley after volley.[[105]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudden201487-122) 19. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-189) The northernmost point under Indian control is the disputed [Siachen Glacier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siachen_Glacier "Siachen Glacier") in [Jammu and Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory) "Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)"); however, the [Government of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, including [Gilgit-Baltistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilgit-Baltistan "Gilgit-Baltistan") administered by Pakistan, to be its territory. It therefore assigns the latitude 37° 6′ to its northernmost point. 20. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-213) A biodiversity hotspot is a [biogeographical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeography "Biogeography") region which has more than 1,500 [vascular plant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_plant "Vascular plant") species, but less than 30% of its primary habitat.[[193]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-SivaperumanVenkataraman2018-212) 21. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-243) During the last years of [British rule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj "British Raj"), elections were held in 1946 in all [provinces of British India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India "Presidencies and provinces of British India").[[220]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-240) The Congress won electoral victories in eight of 11 provinces.[[221]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-241) A Congress-led government was formed in September; Jawaharlal Nehru served as interim prime minister.[[222]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Gopal1976-242) 22. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-247) Congress had the support of [left-leaning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left-wing_politics "Left-wing politics") parties and MPs who opposed the BJP. 23. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-338) The 0% results from rounding to two decimal places. 24. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-370) Caste is a form of [social stratification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratification "Social stratification") characterised by [endogamy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogamy "Endogamy"), hereditary transmission of an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction or exclusion defined by cultural notions of purity and pollution.[[346]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-caste-lead-369) 25. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-416) Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in [Sanskrit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit") usually consisted of two sections: *[sutras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutra "Sutra")* in which a set of rules or problems were stated with economy in verse, and a prose commentary that explained the problem in more detail and provided justification for the solution.[[390]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-plofker-414)[[391]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-filliozat-p140to143-415) 26. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-426) Apart from geometric series 27. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-433) Among young urban middle-class women, for example, a proficiency in classical dance is sometimes a sought-after social achievement.[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432) 28. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-434) The classical status increases a dance's visibility and attracts more funding from agencies and ticket purchases from audiences.[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432) 29. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-435) Given the geographical distribution of the chosen dances and their stylistic range, the choices could be seen as a facet of India's ethos of national integration.[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432) 30. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-437) As per the [Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication) Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Devadasis_(Prevention_of_Dedication)_Act "Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication) Act") after agitation from the Indian middle and upper classes.[[406]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-vatsyayan-lord-432) 31. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-449) The [Central Asian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia") custom of buying bread outside the home accompanied the [Mughals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") to India.[[418]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-bloomsbury-indian-khameri-roti-448) 32. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-466) Genetic studies have shown that mangos were first domesticated in the region between northeastern India, northwestern Myanmar, and Bangladesh.[[433]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Kuhn-464)[[434]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_note-Warschefsky-465) ## References 1. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENational_Informatics_Centre2005_1-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENational_Informatics_Centre2005_1-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENational_Informatics_Centre2005_1-2) [National Informatics Centre 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFNational_Informatics_Centre2005). 2. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-india.gov.in_3-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-india.gov.in_3-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-india.gov.in_3-2) ["National Symbols | National Portal of India"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170204121208/https://india.gov.in/india-glance/national-symbols). [India.gov.in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India.gov.in "India.gov.in"). Archived from [the original](https://india.gov.in/india-glance/national-symbols) on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 1 March 2017. "The National Anthem of India Jana Gana Mana, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly as the National Anthem of India on 24 January 1950." 3. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-tatsama_4-0) ["National anthem of India: a brief on 'Jana Gana Mana'"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190417194530/https://www.news18.com/news/india/national-anthem-of-india-a-brief-on-jana-gana-mana-498576.html). [News18](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News18_India "News18 India"). 14 August 2012. Archived from [the original](https://www.news18.com/news/india/national-anthem-of-india-a-brief-on-jana-gana-mana-498576.html) on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 7 June 2019. 4. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolpert20031_5-0) [Wolpert 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFWolpert2003), p. 1. 5. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConstituent_Assembly_of_India1950_7-0) [Constituent Assembly of India 1950](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFConstituent_Assembly_of_India1950). 6. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinistry_of_Home_Affairs_1960_9-0) [Ministry of Home Affairs 1960](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMinistry_of_Home_Affairs_1960). 7. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-india.gov.in2_10-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-india.gov.in2_10-1) ["Profile | National Portal of India"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130830064815/https://india.gov.in/india-glance/profile). [India.gov.in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India.gov.in "India.gov.in"). Archived from [the original](https://india.gov.in/india-glance/profile) on 30 August 2013. Retrieved 23 August 2013. 8. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-12) ["Constitutional Provisions – Official Language Related Part-17 of the Constitution of India"](https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/constitutional-provisions). *[Department of Official Language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Official_Language "Department of Official Language") via [Government of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210418112326/https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/constitutional-provisions) from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 18 April 2021. 9. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-langoff_13-0) ["50th Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India (July 2012 to June 2013)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160708012438/https://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf) (PDF). Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, [Ministry of Minority Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Minority_Affairs "Ministry of Minority Affairs"), [Government of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India"). Archived from [the original](https://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf) (PDF) on 8 July 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2014. 10. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-16) Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D. (2025). ["India"](https://www.ethnologue.com/country/IN/). *[Ethnologue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnologue "Ethnologue"): Languages of the World* (28 ed.). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250303233113/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/IN/) from the original on 3 March 2025. Retrieved 10 November 2024. 11. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Census2011religion_18-0) ["C −1 Population by religious community – 2011"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS). [Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Registrar_General_&_Census_Commissioner "Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner"). Archived from [the original](https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS) on 25 August 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2015. 12. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELibrary_of_Congress2004_19-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELibrary_of_Congress2004_19-1) [Library of Congress 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFLibrary_of_Congress2004). 13. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-21) ["India population 2026"](https://www.statista.com/statistics/263766/total-population-of-india/). *Statista*. Retrieved 4 May 2026. 14. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-22) ["Population Enumeration Data (Final Population)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160522213913/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/population_enumeration.html). *2011 Census Data*. [Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registrar_General_and_Census_Commissioner_of_India "Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India"). Archived from [the original](https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/population_enumeration.html) on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 17 June 2016. 15. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-23) ["A – 2 Decadal Variation in Population Since 1901"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160430213141/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A-2_Data_Tables/00%20A%202-India.pdf) (PDF). *2011 Census Data*. [Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registrar_General_and_Census_Commissioner_of_India "Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India"). Archived from [the original](https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A-2_Data_Tables/00%20A%202-India.pdf) (PDF) on 30 April 2016. Retrieved 17 June 2016. 16. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-IMFWEO.IN_24-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-IMFWEO.IN_24-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-IMFWEO.IN_24-2) [4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-IMFWEO.IN_24-3) [5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-IMFWEO.IN_24-4) [6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-IMFWEO.IN_24-5) [7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-IMFWEO.IN_24-6) ["World Economic Outlook Database (April 2026 Edition)"](https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0)). *www.imf.org*. [International Monetary Fund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund "International Monetary Fund"). 14 April 2026. Retrieved 18 April 2026. 17. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-25) ["Gini index (World Bank estimate) – India"](https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=IN). [World Bank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank "World Bank"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250902023243/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=IN) from the original on 2 September 2025. Retrieved 31 January 2022. 18. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-UNHDR_26-0) ["Human Development Report 2025"](https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf) (PDF). [United Nations Development Programme](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme "United Nations Development Programme"). 6 May 2025. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2025. Retrieved 6 May 2025. 19. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-29) - [*The Essential Desk Reference*](https://books.google.com/books?id=yjcOAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA76). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). 2002. p. 76. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-512873-4](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512873-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512873-4"). "Official name: Republic of India."; - John Da Graça (2017). [*Heads of State and Government*](https://books.google.com/books?id=M0YfDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA421). London: [Macmillan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers "Macmillan Publishers"). p. 421. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-349-65771-1](Special:BookSources/978-1-349-65771-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-349-65771-1"). "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya (Hindi)"; - Graham Rhind (2017). [*Global Sourcebook of Address Data Management: A Guide to Address Formats and Data in 194 Countries*](https://books.google.com/books?id=iGdQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA302). [Taylor & Francis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_&_Francis "Taylor & Francis"). p. 302. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-351-93326-1](Special:BookSources/978-1-351-93326-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-351-93326-1"). "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat."; - Bradnock, Robert W. (2015). [*The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs*](https://books.google.com/books?id=zzjbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA108). [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). p. 108. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-317-40511-5](Special:BookSources/978-1-317-40511-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-317-40511-5"). "Official name: English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya"; - [*Penguin Compact Atlas of the World*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pLw-ReHIgvQC&pg=PA140). [Penguin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_Group "Penguin Group"). 2012. p. 140. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-7566-9859-1](Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-9859-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7566-9859-1"). "Official name: Republic of India"; - [*Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA515) (3rd ed.). [Merriam-Webster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster "Merriam-Webster"). 1997. pp. 515–516. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-87779-546-9](Special:BookSources/978-0-87779-546-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-87779-546-9"). "Officially, Republic of India"; - [*Complete Atlas of the World: The Definitive View of the Earth*](https://books.google.com/books?id=O5moCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54-IA10) (3rd ed.). [DK Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DK_Publishing "DK Publishing"). 2016. p. 54. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4654-5528-4](Special:BookSources/978-1-4654-5528-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4654-5528-4"). "Official name: Republic of India"; - [*Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations 2013*](https://books.google.com/books?id=CQWhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA726). [CQ Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CQ_Press "CQ Press"). 2013. p. 726. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4522-9937-2](Special:BookSources/978-1-4522-9937-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4522-9937-2"). 20. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-30) James, K. S.; Sekher, T. V. (2024). ["India's Population Change: Critical Issues and Prospects."](https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009318846.003). In James, K. S.; Sekher, T. V. (eds.). *India Population Report* (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–18. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1017/9781009318846.003](https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009318846.003). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-00-931886-0](Special:BookSources/978-1-00-931886-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-00-931886-0"). 21. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-31) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2012), p. 327: "Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India's achievements since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the world's new nations." 22. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-stein-arnold_32-0) [Stein, Burton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burton_Stein "Burton Stein") (2012). [Arnold, David](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Arnold_(historian) "David Arnold (historian)") (ed.). *A History of India*. The Blackwell History of the World Series (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. "One of these is the idea of India as 'the world's largest democracy', but a democracy forged less by the creation of representative institutions and expanding electorate under British rule than by the endeavours of India's founding fathers – Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Ambedkar – and the labours of the Constituent Assembly between 1946 and 1949, embodied in the Indian constitution of 1950. This democratic order, reinforced by the regular holding of nationwide elections and polling for the state assemblies, has, it can be argued, consistently underpinned a fundamentally democratic state structure – despite the anomaly of the Emergency and the apparent durability of the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty." 23. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisher2018184–185_33-0) [Fisher 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFisher2018), pp. 184–185: "Since 1947, India's internal disputes over its national identity, while periodically bitter and occasionally punctuated by violence, have been largely managed with remarkable and sustained commitment to national unity and democracy." 24. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-34) ["Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150317182910/https://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf) (PDF). Archived from [the original](https://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/BMIntro-1011.pdf) (PDF) on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2008. 25. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-PetragliaAllchin_36-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-PetragliaAllchin_36-1) [Petraglia & Allchin 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFPetragliaAllchin2007), p. [10](https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA10): "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. [...] Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73 and 55 ka." 26. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Dyson2018p1_37-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Dyson2018p1_37-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Dyson2018p1_37-2) [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), p. [1](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1): "Modern human beings—*Homo sapiens*—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. [...] it is virtually certain that there were *Homo sapiens* in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present." 27. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Fisher2018p23_38-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Fisher2018p23_38-1) [Fisher 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFisher2018), p. [23](https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23): "Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the *Homo sapiens* range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago." 28. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Dyson2018-28a_39-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Dyson2018-28a_39-1) [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), p. [28](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28) 29. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-2_40-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-2_40-1) - [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), pp. [4–5](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4). - [Fisher 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFisher2018), p. [33](https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23). 30. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-lowe1_41-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-lowe1_41-1) [Lowe 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFLowe2015), pp. 1–2: "[It](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda "Rigveda") consists of 1,028 hymns (*sūktas*), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India." 31. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-4-Rigveda_42-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-4-Rigveda_42-1) - [Witzel 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFWitzel2003), pp. 68–70: "It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); [...] The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalised early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in fact something of a *tape-recording* of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. [...] The RV text was composed before the introduction and massive use of iron, that is before ca. 1200–1000 BCE." - [Doniger 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDoniger2014), pp. xviii, 10: "A Chronology of Hinduism: ca. 1500–1000 BCE Rig Veda; ca. 1200–900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda [...] Hindu texts began with the *Rig Veda* ('Knowledge of Verses'), composed in northwest India around 1500 BCE; the first of the three Vedas, it is the earliest extant text composed in Sanskrit, the language of ancient India." - [Ludden 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFLudden2014), p. [19](https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19) - [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), pp. [14–15](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14) - [Robb 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRobb2011), pp. [46–](https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC&pg=PA46) 32. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-3_43-0) - [Jamison & Brereton 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFJamisonBrereton2020), pp. 2, 4–5: "The Ṛgveda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. [...] Although Vedic religion is very different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there. Gods like Viṣṇu and Śiva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are already present in the Ṛgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those they will later play, and the principal Ṛgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism, though in diminished capacity." - [Flood 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFlood2020), p. 4, see note 4: "I take the term 'Hinduism' to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterised by a number of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to endogamous social units (*jāti*/*varṇa*), participating in practices that involve making an offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (*pūjā*), and a first-level cultural polytheism (although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being)." - [Michaels 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMichaels2017), p. 86: "Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three *samskaras* (initiation, marriage, and death ritual). Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened. Although *samskaras* vary from region to region, from class (*varna*) to class, and from caste to caste, their core elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly tradition preserved by the *Brahmin* priests." - [Flood 1996](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFlood1996), p. 35: "It is this Sanskrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and individuals. The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as Hinduism." 33. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-4_44-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-4_44-1) [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), pp. [16](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16), [25](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25). 34. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Dyson2018-16a_45-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Dyson2018-16a_45-1) [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), p. [16](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16) 35. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Fisher2018-59_46-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Fisher2018-59_46-1) [Fisher 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFisher2018), p. [59](https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59). 36. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-5_47-0) - [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), pp. [16–17](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16). - [Fisher 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFisher2018), p. [67](https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67). - [Robb 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRobb2011), pp. [56–57](https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC&pg=PA56) - [Ludden 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFLudden2014), pp. [29–30](https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29). 37. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-6_48-0) - [Ludden 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFLudden2014), pp. [28–29](https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28). - Glenn Van Brummelen (2014). ["Arithmetic"](https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA46). In Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.). *Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia*. [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). pp. 46–48. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-135-45932-1](Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45932-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-135-45932-1"). 38. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-7_49-0) - [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), p. [20](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20). - [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), p. 90. - Ramusack, Barbara N. (1999). ["Women in South Asia"](https://books.google.com/books?id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PA27). In Barbara N. Ramusack; Sharon L. Sievers (eds.). *Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History*. [Indiana University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_University_Press "Indiana University Press"). pp. 27–29. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-253-21267-2](Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21267-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21267-2"). 39. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2016122–123_50-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2016122–123_50-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2016122–123_50-2) [Kulke & Rothermund 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFKulkeRothermund2016), pp. 122–123. 40. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-AsherAsher2006-17_52-0) [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006), p. [17](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA17). 41. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-8_53-0) - [Ludden 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFLudden2014), p. [54](https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54). - [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006), pp. [78–79](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA78). - [Fisher 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFisher2018), p. [76](https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76). 42. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-13_54-0) - [Ludden 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFLudden2014), pp. [68–70](https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68). - [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006), pp. [19](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA19), 24. 43. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-10_55-0) - [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), p. [48](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48). - [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006), p. [52](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA53). 44. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-AsherAsher2006-74_56-0) [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006), p. [74](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA74). 45. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-AsherAsher2006-267_57-0) [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006), p. [267](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA267). 46. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-AsherAsher2006-152_58-0) [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006), p. [152](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA152). 47. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Fisher2018-106_59-0) [Fisher 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFisher2018), p. [106](https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA106). 48. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsher1992[httpsarchiveorgdetailsarchitectureofmu0000ashepage250mode2up_250]_60-0) [Asher 1992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsher1992), p. [250](https://archive.org/details/architectureofmu0000ashe/page/250/mode/2up). 49. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-11_61-0) - [Asher & Talbot 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2006), p. [289](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA289). - [Fisher 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFisher2018), p. [120](https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120). 50. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Combined-12_62-0) Taylor, Miles (2016). ["The British royal family and the colonial empire from the Georgians to Prince George"](https://books.google.com/books?id=iR3GDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA39). In Aldrish, Robert; McCreery, Cindy (eds.). *Crowns and Colonies: European Monarchies and Overseas Empires*. [Manchester University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_University_Press "Manchester University Press"). pp. 38–39. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-5261-0088-7](Special:BookSources/978-1-5261-0088-7 "Special:BookSources/978-1-5261-0088-7"). 51. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddyQuAgAAQBAJpgPA76_76]_63-0) [Peers 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFPeers2013), p. [76](https://books.google.com/books?id=dyQuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76). 52. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-EmbreeHay1988_64-0) Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Hay, Stephen N.; Bary, William Theodore De (1988). ["Nationalism Takes Root: The Moderates"](https://books.google.com/books?id=XoMRuiSpBp4C&pg=PA85). *Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan*. [Columbia University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University_Press "Columbia University Press"). p. 85. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-231-06414-9](Special:BookSources/978-0-231-06414-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-231-06414-9"). 53. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Marshall2001_65-0) Marshall, P. J. (2001). [*The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire*](https://books.google.com/books?id=S2EXN8JTwAEC&pg=PAPA179). Cambridge University Press. p. 179. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-00254-7](Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00254-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00254-7"). "The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress." 54. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Chiriyankandath2016_66-0) Chiriyankandath, James (2016). [*Parties and Political Change in South Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=c4n7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA2). Routledge. p. 2. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-317-58620-3](Special:BookSources/978-1-317-58620-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-317-58620-3"). "South Asian parties include several of the oldest in the post-colonial world, foremost among them the 129-year-old Indian National Congress that led India to independence in 1947" 55. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-metcalf-metcalf-gandhi-1920_67-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2012), p. 202: "The year 1919 was a watershed in the modern history of India. [...] By its end the Montagu–Chelmsford reforms... were enacted. [...] The year, however, also brought the repressive Rowlatt bills and the catastrophe of the Amritsar massacre. For many, if not most, Indians the reforms had become a poisoned chalice. They chose instead a novel course of political action, that of 'non-violent non-cooperation', and a new leader, Mohandas K. Gandhi, only recently returned from twenty years in South Africa. Gandhi would endure as a lasting symbol of moral leadership for the entire world community." 56. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-stein-arnold-successful-nationalism_68-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), p. 289: "Gandhi was the leading genius of the later and ultimately successful campaign for India's independence" 57. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-69) - [Copland 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFCopland2001), pp. 71–78. - [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), p. 222. 58. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Dyson2018-219_70-0) [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), pp. [219](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA219), 262. 59. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Fisher2018-8_71-0) [Fisher 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFisher2018), p. [8](https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8). 60. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-MetcalfMetcalf2012-265_72-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-MetcalfMetcalf2012-265_72-1) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2012), pp. [265–266](https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC&pg=PA265). 61. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Dyson2018-216-a_73-0) [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), p. [216](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA216). 62. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-kashmir-disputes_74-0) - ["Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent"](https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent). *[Encyclopaedia Britannica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Britannica "Encyclopaedia Britannica")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent) from the original on 13 August 2019. Retrieved 15 August 2019. "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent ... has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947." - Pletcher, Kenneth. ["Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia"](https://www.britannica.com/place/Aksai-Chin). *[Encyclopaedia Britannica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Britannica "Encyclopaedia Britannica")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190402090308/https://www.britannica.com/place/Aksai-Chin) from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 16 August 2019. "Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, ... constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India" - Bosworth, C. E (2006). ["Kashmir"](https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328). *[Encyclopedia Americana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana "Encyclopedia Americana"): Jefferson to Latin*. [Scholastic Library Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholastic_Library_Publishing "Scholastic Library Publishing"). p. 328. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-7172-0139-6](Special:BookSources/978-0-7172-0139-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7172-0139-6"). "KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partly by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947" 63. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-NarayanJohn2018-lead_75-0) Narayan, Jitendra; John, Denny; Ramadas, Nirupama (2018). "Malnutrition in India: status and government initiatives". *[Journal of Public Health Policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Public_Health_Policy "Journal of Public Health Policy")*. **40** (1): 126–141. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1057/s41271-018-0149-5](https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41271-018-0149-5). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [30353132](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30353132). 64. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-BalakrishnanDey2019-lead_76-0) [Balakrishnan, Kalpana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalpana_Balakrishnan "Kalpana Balakrishnan"); Dey, Sagnik; et al. (2019). ["The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6358127). *[The Lancet Planetary Health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lancet_Planetary_Health "The Lancet Planetary Health")*. **3** (1): e26–e39. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30261-4](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS2542-5196%2818%2930261-4). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier) "PMC (identifier)") [6358127](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6358127). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [30528905](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30528905). 65. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaranthGopal2005374_77-0) [Karanth & Gopal 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFKaranthGopal2005), p. 374. 66. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-78) ["India (n)"](https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/3183874375). *[Oxford English Dictionary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary "Oxford English Dictionary")* (online ed.). Oxford University Press. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1093/OED/3183874375](https://doi.org/10.1093%2FOED%2F3183874375). (Subscription or [participating institution membership](https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary) required.) 67. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuiper201086_79-0) [Kuiper 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFKuiper2010), p. 86. 68. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClémentin-Ojha2014_80-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClémentin-Ojha2014_80-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClémentin-Ojha2014_80-2) [Clémentin-Ojha 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFClémentin-Ojha2014). 69. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-81) [*The Constitution of India*](https://web.archive.org/web/20140909230437/https://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf) (PDF). [Ministry of Law and Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_(India) "Ministry of Law and Justice (India)"). 1 December 2007. Archived from [the original](https://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf) (PDF) on 9 September 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2012. "Article 1(1): India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States." 70. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Jha2014_82-0) Jha, Dwijendra Narayan (2014). [*Rethinking Hindu Identity*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dqDgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11). [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). p. 11. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-317-49034-0](Special:BookSources/978-1-317-49034-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-317-49034-0"). 71. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddYM4DwAAQBAJpgPA253_253]_83-0) [Singh 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFSingh2017), p. [253](https://books.google.com/books?id=dYM4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA253). 72. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarrow2003_84-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarrow2003_84-1) [Barrow 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBarrow2003). 73. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-85) Paturi, Joseph; Patterson, Roger (2016). "Hinduism (with Hare Krishna)". In Hodge, Bodie; Patterson, Roger (eds.). [*World Religions & Cults Volume 2: Moralistic, Mythical and Mysticism Religions*](https://books.google.com/books?id=oCo5DAAAQBAJ). United States: New Leaf Publishing Group. pp. 59–60. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-89051-922-6](Special:BookSources/978-0-89051-922-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-89051-922-6"). "The actual term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the Indus River. The term Hindu originated as a geographical term and did not refer to a religion. Later, Hindu was taken by European languages from the Arabic term al-Hind, which referred to the people who lived across the Indus River. This Arabic term was itself taken from the Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name for India, meaning the "land of Hindus."" 74. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-86) ["Hindustan"](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266465/Hindustan). *[Encyclopædia Britannica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopædia_Britannica "Encyclopædia Britannica")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110717105344/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266465/Hindustan) from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2011. 75. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-87) Lowe, John J. (2017). [*Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nSgmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). p. 58. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-879357-1](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-879357-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-879357-1"). "The term 'Epic Sanskrit' refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. ... It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period." 76. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-mattern-slow-moon-non-african-migration_88-0) [Mattern 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMattern2019), pp. 146–147 All non-African human populations share a common ancestry in the recent past, about 80,000 to 50,000 years ago. Some time within this period, a group of modern humans migrated from Africa, traversed southern Asia, and crossed the sea to the ancient continent of Sahul (now Australia, Tasmania, and Papua New Guinea), picking up Neanderthal and Denisovan genes along the way; branches reached Europe somewhat later, and Americas last. This was not the first migration of anatomically modern humans out of Africa. ... But for the most part, earlier populations of humans around Eurasia sputtered out, returned to Africa, or were replaced by humans from the last migration out of Africa.}} 77. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright201045–51_89-0) [Wright 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFWright2010), pp. 45–51. 78. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2010107_90-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2010107_90-1) [Wright 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFWright2010), p. 107. 79. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2010145–146_91-0) [Wright 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFWright2010), pp. 145–146. 80. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyson201816,_25_92-0) [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), pp. 16, 25. 81. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Evans-2009_93-0) [Evans, Nicholas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Evans_(linguist) "Nicholas Evans (linguist)") (2009). [*Dying Words: Endangered languages and what they have to tell us*](https://books.google.com/books?id=kjXnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 27–. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-631-23305-3](Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23305-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23305-3"). 82. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Lowe2017-epic_95-0) Lowe, John J. (2017). [*Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nSgmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58). Oxford University Press. p. 58. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-879357-1](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-879357-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-879357-1"). "The term 'Epic Sanskrit' refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. ... It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period." 83. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein201021,_61–62_97-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), pp. 21, 61–62. 84. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyson201816–17_98-0) [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), pp. 16–17. 85. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoy201228_99-0) [Roy 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRoy2012), p. 28. 86. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIori2023184,_219_101-0) [Iori 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFIori2023), pp. 184, 219. 87. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudden201428–29_103-0) [Ludden 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFLudden2014), pp. 28–29. 88. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyson201819_104-0) [Dyson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDyson2018), p. 19. 89. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein201073_105-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), p. 73. 90. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-elverskog-2020-lead-1_106-0) Elverskog, Johan (2020). *The Buddha's Footprint: An Environmental History of Asia*. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 56. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-8122-5183-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-5183-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-5183-8"). "The imperial edicts of Asoka echo this commodity view of trees. In Pillar Edict V, Asoka decreed that "forests must not be burned without reason." The Buddhist community took this mandate further by declaring that in order to protect forests from such conflagrations monks were allowed to set counterfires" 91. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisher201872_107-0) [Fisher 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFisher2018), p. 72. 92. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeRothermund2016118,_126_108-0) [Kulke & Rothermund 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFKulkeRothermund2016), pp. 118, 126. 93. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobb201168–69_109-0) [Robb 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRobb2011), pp. 68–69. 94. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein201093–94_110-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), pp. 93–94. 95. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilbert201754–55_111-0) [Gilbert 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFGilbert2017), pp. 54–55. 96. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein201098_112-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), p. 98. 97. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010100–101_113-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), pp. 100–101. 98. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein201099_114-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), p. 99. 99. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010116_115-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), p. 116. 100. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010115–116_116-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010115–116_116-1) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), pp. 115–116. 101. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010116–117_118-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010116–117_118-1) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), pp. 116–117. 102. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010118_119-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010118_119-1) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), p. 118. 103. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010118–119_120-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010118–119_120-1) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), pp. 118–119. 104. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010121–123_121-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010121–123_121-1) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), pp. 121–123. 105. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudden201487_122-0) [Ludden 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFLudden2014), p. 87. 106. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudden201485_124-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudden201485_124-1) [Ludden 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFLudden2014), p. 85. 107. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot202254_125-0) [Asher & Talbot 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2022), p. 54. 108. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf201241_126-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2012), p. 41. 109. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200850–51_127-0) [Asher & Talbot 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2008), pp. 50–51. 110. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200853_128-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot200853_128-1) [Asher & Talbot 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2008), p. 53. 111. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf201247_129-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2012), p. 47. 112. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobb201197–98_130-0) [Robb 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRobb2011), p. 97–98. 113. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010159_131-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), p. 159. 114. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2022136_132-0) [Asher & Talbot 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2022), p. 136. 115. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobb2011108–109_133-0) [Robb 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRobb2011), pp. 108–109. 116. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf201215_134-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2012), p. 15. 117. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2022136,_151–152_135-0) [Asher & Talbot 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2022), pp. 136, 151–152. 118. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf201217_136-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2012), p. 17. 119. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008158_137-0) [Asher & Talbot 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2008), p. 158. 120. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010164_138-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), pp. 164. 121. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2022187_139-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2022187_139-1) [Asher & Talbot 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2022), p. 187. 122. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008186_140-0) [Asher & Talbot 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2008), p. 186. 123. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200623–24_141-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200623–24_141-1) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), pp. 23–24. 124. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008256_142-0) [Asher & Talbot 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2008), p. 256. 125. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008286_143-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008286_143-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008286_143-2) [Asher & Talbot 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2008), p. 286. 126. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200644–49_144-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), pp. 44–49. 127. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobb2011115–117_145-0) [Robb 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRobb2011), pp. 115–117. 128. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudden2002128–132_146-0) [Ludden 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFLudden2002), pp. 128–132. 129. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200651–55_147-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), pp. 51–55. 130. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200668–71_148-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), pp. 68–71. 131. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsherTalbot2008289_149-0) [Asher & Talbot 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAsherTalbot2008), p. 289. 132. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobb2011169–171_150-0) [Robb 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRobb2011), pp. 169–171. 133. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200694–99_151-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), pp. 94–99. 134. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown199483_152-0) [Brown 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBrown1994), p. 83. 135. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeers200650_153-0) [Peers 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFPeers2006), p. 50. 136. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006100–103_154-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), pp. 100–103. 137. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown199485–86_155-0) [Brown 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBrown1994), pp. 85–86. 138. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010227_156-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), p. 227. 139. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006103–108_157-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), pp. 103–108. 140. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobb2001183_158-0) [Robb 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRobb2001), p. 183. 141. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarkar19831–4_159-0) [Sarkar 1983](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFSarkar1983), pp. 1–4. 142. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopland2001ix–x_160-0) [Copland 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFCopland2001), pp. ix–x. 143. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006123_161-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), p. 123. 144. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010249_162-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), p. 249. 145. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010245_163-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), p. 245: An expansion of state functions in British and in princely India occurred as a result of the terrible famines of the later nineteenth century, ... A reluctant regime decided that state resources had to be deployed and that anti-famine measures were best managed through technical experts. 146. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStein2010247–248_164-0) [Stein 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStein2010), pp. 247–248. 147. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006126_165-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006126_165-1) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), p. 126. 148. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200697_166-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf200697_166-1) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), p. 97. 149. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006163_167-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), p. 163. 150. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006167_168-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), p. 167. 151. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006195–197_169-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), pp. 195–197. 152. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006203_170-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), p. 203. 153. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006231_171-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), p. 231. 154. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-exp-middle-class_172-0) Javalgi, Rajshekhar (Raj) G.; Grossman, David A. (2016). "7 Understanding the Characteristics and Entrepreneurial Activities of Middle-Class Consumers in Emerging Markets: The Case of India". In Marsh, Leslie L.; Li, Hongmei (eds.). *The Middle Class in Emerging Societies: Consumers, Lifestyles and Markets*. Routledge Research in Cultural and Media Studies Series. Routledge. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.4324/978135717692-10](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F978135717692-10) (inactive 8 December 2025). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-138-85882-4](Special:BookSources/978-1-138-85882-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-138-85882-4"). "Between now and 2039, India is projected to add over 1 billion people to the global middle class creating the world's fifth-largest consumer market (Dobbs). ... India's middle class saw its largest growth during the early 1990s when economic reforms led to integration into global markets. As Western countries were experiencing economic contraction, India's economy continued to grow above 5 percent."`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2025 ([link](Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_December_2025 "Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2025")) Category: ./Category:CS1\_maint:\_DOI\_inactive\_as\_of\_December\_2025 155. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006265–266_173-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), pp. 265–266. 156. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006266–270_174-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), pp. 266–270. 157. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006253_175-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), p. 253. 158. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006274_176-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), p. 274. 159. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMetcalfMetcalf2006247–248_177-0) [Metcalf & Metcalf 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006), pp. 247–248. 160. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAliAitchison2005_178-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAliAitchison2005_178-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAliAitchison2005_178-2) [Ali & Aitchison 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFAliAitchison2005). 161. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolnar2015117_179-0) [Molnar 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMolnar2015), p. 117. 162. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolnar2015118_180-0) [Molnar 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMolnar2015), p. 118. 163. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMolnar2015128_181-0) [Molnar 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMolnar2015), p. 128. 164. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg20237_182-0) [Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDikshitSchwartzberg2023), p. 7. 165. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrakash_et_al.2000_183-0) [Prakash et al. 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFPrakash_et_al.2000). 166. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-aravalli_184-0) [Kaul 1970](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFKaul1970), p. 160, " The Aravalli range boldy defines the eastern limit of the arid and semi-arid zone. Probably the more humid conditions that prevail near the Aravallis prevented the extension of aridity towards the east and the Ganges Valley. It is noteworthy that, wherever there are gaps in this range, sand has advanced to the east of it." 167. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-prasad-aravalli_185-0) [Prasad 1974](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFPrasad1974), p. 372, " The topography of the Indian Desert is dominated by the Aravalli Ranges on its eastern border, which consist largely of tightly folded and highly metamorphosed Archaean rocks." 168. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-fisher-aravalli_186-0) [Fisher 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFisher2018), p. 83, " East of the lower Indus lay the inhospitable Rann of Kutch and Thar Desert. East of the upper Indus lay the more promising but narrow corridor between the Himalayan foothills on the north and the Thar Desert and Aravalli Mountains on the south. At the strategic choke point, just before reaching the fertile, well-watered Gangetic plain, sat Delhi. On this site, where life giving streams running off the most northern spur of the rocky Aravalli ridge flowed into the Jumna river, and where the war-horse and war-elephant trade intersected, a series of dynasties built fortified capitals." 169. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg20238_187-0) [Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDikshitSchwartzberg2023), p. 8. 170. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg20239–10_188-0) [Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDikshitSchwartzberg2023), pp. 9–10. 171. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinistry_of_Information_and_Broadcasting20071_190-0) [Ministry of Information and Broadcasting 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMinistry_of_Information_and_Broadcasting2007), p. 1. 172. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg202315_191-0) [Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDikshitSchwartzberg2023), p. 15. 173. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuff1993353_192-0) [Duff 1993](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDuff1993), p. 353. 174. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasuXavier2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnXmLDgAAQBAJpgPA78_78]_193-0) [Basu & Xavier 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBasuXavier2017), p. [78](https://books.google.com/books?id=nXmLDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78). 175. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg202316_194-0) [Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDikshitSchwartzberg2023), p. 16. 176. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg202317_195-0) [Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDikshitSchwartzberg2023), p. 17. 177. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKumarPathakPednekarRaju2006_196-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKumarPathakPednekarRaju2006_196-1) [Kumar et al. 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFKumarPathakPednekarRaju2006). 178. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg202312_197-0) [Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDikshitSchwartzberg2023), p. 12. 179. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDikshitSchwartzberg202313_198-0) [Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFDikshitSchwartzberg2023), p. 13. 180. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcgrailBlueKentleyPalmer2003257_199-0) [Mcgrail et al. 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMcgrailBlueKentleyPalmer2003), p. 257. 181. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1967391–394_200-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChang1967391–394_200-1) [Chang 1967](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFChang1967), pp. 391–394. 182. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPosey1994118_201-0) [Posey 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFPosey1994), p. 118. 183. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolpert20034_202-0) [Wolpert 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFWolpert2003), p. 4. 184. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeitzmanWorden199697_203-0) [Heitzman & Worden 1996](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFHeitzmanWorden1996), p. 97. 185. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-204) Sharma, Vibha (15 June 2020). ["Average temperature over India projected to rise by 4.4 degrees Celsius: Govt report on impact of climate change in country"](https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/average-temperature-over-india-projected-to-rise-by-4-4-degrees-celsius-govt-report-on-impact-of-climate-change-in-country-99583). *[The Tribune](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tribune "The Tribune")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200921173504/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/average-temperature-over-india-projected-to-rise-by-4-4-degrees-celsius-govt-report-on-impact-of-climate-change-in-country-99583) from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 30 November 2020. 186. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-205) Sethi, Nitin (3 February 2007). ["Global warming: Mumbai to face the heat"](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/global-warming-mumbai-to-face-the-heat/articleshow/1556662.cms). *[The Times of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times_of_India "The Times of India")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121023235353/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-02-03/india/27877261_1_climate-change-global-warming-gdp-growth) from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2021. 187. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-206) Gupta, Vivek; Jain, Manoj Kumar (2018). "Investigation of multi-model spatiotemporal mesoscale drought projections over India under climate change scenario". *[Journal of Hydrology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Hydrology "Journal of Hydrology")*. **567**: 489–509. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2018JHyd..567..489G](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018JHyd..567..489G). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.10.012](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhydrol.2018.10.012). 188. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-207) [*Megadiverse Countries*](https://www.biodiversitya-z.org/content/megadiverse-countries). Biodiversity A–Z, [UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Conservation_Monitoring_Centre "World Conservation Monitoring Centre"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140903011526/http://www.biodiversitya-z.org/areas/26) from the original on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 17 October 2021. 189. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-208) ["Animal Discoveries 2011: New Species and New Records"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130116214754/https://zsi.gov.in/right_menu/Animal_disc/Animal%20Discovery%202011.pdf) (PDF). [Zoological Survey of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoological_Survey_of_India "Zoological Survey of India"). 2012. Archived from [the original](https://zsi.gov.in/right_menu/Animal_disc/Animal%20Discovery%202011.pdf) (PDF) on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2012. 190. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Puri_209-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Puri_209-1) Puri, S. K. ["Biodiversity Profile of India"](https://web.archive.org/web/20111121153614/https://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/indiabio.html). *ces.iisc.ernet.in*. Archived from [the original](https://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/indiabio.html) on 21 November 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2007. 191. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBasak198324_210-0) [Basak 1983](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBasak1983), p. 24. 192. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-IUCN-India_211-0) [*India*](https://web.archive.org/web/20201101033802/https://www.iucn.org/asia/countries/india). [International Union for Conservation of Nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature "International Union for Conservation of Nature") (IUCN). 2019. Archived from [the original](https://www.iucn.org/asia/countries/india) on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2019. 193. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-SivaperumanVenkataraman2018_212-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-SivaperumanVenkataraman2018_212-1) Venkataraman, Krishnamoorthy; Sivaperuman, Chandrakasan (2018). ["Biodiversity Hotspots in India"](https://books.google.com/books?id=8kFKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5). In Sivaperuman, Chandrakasan; Venkataraman, Krishnamoorthy (eds.). *Indian Hotspots: Vertebrate Faunal Diversity, Conservation and Management*. [Springer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Publishing "Springer Publishing"). p. 5. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-981-10-6605-4](Special:BookSources/978-981-10-6605-4 "Special:BookSources/978-981-10-6605-4"). 194. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Jha2018_214-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Jha2018_214-1) Jha, Raghbendra (2018). [*Facets of India's Economy and Her Society Volume II: Current State and Future Prospects*](https://books.google.com/books?id=9n9SDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA198). [Springer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Publishing "Springer Publishing"). p. 198. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-349-95342-4](Special:BookSources/978-1-349-95342-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-349-95342-4"). 195. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-indiaforest_215-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-indiaforest_215-1) ["Forest Cover in States/UTs in India in 2019"](https://www.frienvis.nic.in/Database/Forest-Cover-in-States-UTs-2019_2478.aspx). [Forest Research Institute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Research_Institute_(India) "Forest Research Institute (India)") via [National Informatics Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Informatics_Centre "National Informatics Centre"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211019155758/http://www.frienvis.nic.in/Database/Forest-Cover-in-States-UTs-2019_2478.aspx) from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2021. 196. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETritsch200111–12_216-0) [Tritsch 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFTritsch2001), pp. 11–12. 197. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-217) [Tritsch 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFTritsch2001), p. 12: "India has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the rain shadow area of the Deccan Plateau east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Growth is limited only by moisture availability in these areas, so with irrigation the fertile alluvial soil of Punjab and Haryana has been turned into India's prime agricultural area. Much of the thorn forest covering the plains probably had savannah-like features now no longer visible." 198. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Goyal2006_218-0) Goyal, Anupam (2006). [*The WTO and International Environmental Law: Towards Conciliation*](https://books.google.com/books?id=UTGQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA295). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). p. 295. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-567710-2](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-567710-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-567710-2"). Quote: "The Indian government successfully argued that the medicinal *neem* tree is part of traditional Indian knowledge. (page 295)" 199. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Hughes2013_219-0) Hughes, Julie E. (2013). [*Animal Kingdoms*](https://books.google.com/books?id=RL8qWNmpkc0C&pg=PT106). [Harvard University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Press "Harvard University Press"). p. 106. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-674-07480-4](Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07480-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07480-4"). "At same time, the leafy pipal trees and comparative abundance that marked the Mewari landscape fostered refinements unattainable in other lands." 200. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-AmeriCostello2018_220-0) Ameri, Marta (2018). "Letting the Pictures Speak: An Image-Based Approach to the Mythological and Narrative Imagery of the Harappan World". In Ameri, Marta; Costello, Sarah Kielt; Jamison, Gregg; Scott, Sarah Jarmer (eds.). [*Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SklVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156). [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). pp. 156–157. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-108-17351-3](Special:BookSources/978-1-108-17351-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-108-17351-3"). Quote: "The last of the centaurs has the long, wavy, horizontal horns of a markhor, a human face, a heavy-set body that appears bovine, and a goat tail ... This figure is often depicted by itself, but it is also consistently represented in scenes that seem to reflect the adoration of a figure in a pipal tree or arbour and which may be termed ritual. These include fully detailed scenes like that visible in the large 'divine adoration' seal from Mohenjo-daro." 201. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Gwynne2011_221-0) Paul Gwynne (2011). [*World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction*](https://books.google.com/books?id=tdsRKc_knZoC&pg=RA5-PT195). [John Wiley & Sons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_&_Sons "John Wiley & Sons"). p. 358. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4443-6005-9](Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-6005-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-6005-9"). "The tree under which Sakyamuni became the Buddha is a peepal tree (*[Ficus religiosa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus_religiosa "Ficus religiosa")*)." 202. 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Retrieved 26 April 2025. 206. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-itis_226-0) [Fischer, Johann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Baptist_Fischer "Johann Baptist Fischer"). ["Semnopithecus johnii"](https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=944270#null). [ITIS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITIS "ITIS"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180829072131/https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=944270#null) from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 27 August 2018. 207. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-IUCN_227-0) Biju, S.D.; Dutta, S.; Ravichandran, M.S.; Vasudevan, K.; Vijayakumar, S.P.; Srinivasulu, C.; Dasaramji Buddhe, G. (2016) [errata version of 2004 assessment]. ["*Duttaphrynus beddomii*"](https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/54584/86543952). *[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List "IUCN Red List")*. **2004** e.T54584A86543952. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T54584A11155448.en](https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T54584A11155448.en). Retrieved 26 April 2025. 208. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-228) Frost, Darrel R. (2015). ["*Duttaphrynus beddomii* (Günther, 1876)"](https://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Bufonidae/Duttaphrynus/Duttaphrynus-beddomii). *Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0*. [American Museum of Natural History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History "American Museum of Natural History"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150721092639/https://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Bufonidae/Duttaphrynus/Duttaphrynus-beddomii) from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 13 September 2015. 209. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIUCN1994xli_229-0) [IUCN 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFIUCN1994), p. xli. 210. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-LovetteFitzpatrick2016_230-0) Lovette, Irby J.; Fitzpatrick, John W. (2016). [*Handbook of Bird Biology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=OGyQDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA599). [John Wiley & Sons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_&_Sons "John Wiley & Sons"). p. 599. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-118-29105-4](Special:BookSources/978-1-118-29105-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-118-29105-4"). 211. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-231) [Tritsch 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFTritsch2001), p. 15: "Before it was so heavily settled and intensively exploited, the Punjab was dominated by thorn forest interspersed by rolling grasslands which were grazed on by millions of Blackbuck, accompanied by their dominant predator, the Cheetah. Always keen hunters, the Moghul princes kept tame cheetahs which were used to chase and bring down the Blackbuck. Today the Cheetah is extinct in India and the severely endangered Blackbuck no longer exists in the Punjab." 212. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMinistry_of_Environment_and_Forests_1972_232-0) [Ministry of Environment and Forests 1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMinistry_of_Environment_and_Forests_1972). 213. 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[↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Dinkel2018_265-0) Dinkel, Jürgen (2018). [*The Non-Aligned Movement: Genesis, Organization and Politics (1927–1992)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YqOODwAAQBAJ). [Brill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brill_Publishers "Brill Publishers"). pp. 92–93. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-90-04-33613-1](Special:BookSources/978-90-04-33613-1 "Special:BookSources/978-90-04-33613-1"). 244. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-storm-india-commonwealth_266-0) Storm, Eric (2024). [*Nationalism: A World History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YfEIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA234). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-691-23309-3](Special:BookSources/978-0-691-23309-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-691-23309-3"). [LCCN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier) "LCCN (identifier)") [2024015293](https://lccn.loc.gov/2024015293). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250320070147/https://books.google.com/books?id=YfEIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA234) from the original on 20 March 2025. Retrieved 18 March 2025. "The whole constellation changed when India and Pakistan gained independence as dominions, which was a solution that made possible a speedier withdrawal of the British. In the end, India decided to become a republic, although the leadership preferred to remain within the Commonwealth." 245. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-267) ["The London Declaration"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100706045924/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/document/181889/34293/35468/214257/londondeclaration.htm). Commonwealth of Nations. 26 April 1949. Archived from [the original](http://www.thecommonwealth.org/document/181889/34293/35468/214257/londondeclaration.htm) on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2013. 246. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERothermund200048,_227_268-0) [Rothermund 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRothermund2000), pp. 48, 227. 247. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-62-humiliation_269-0) (a) Guyot-Rechard, Berenice (2017). [*Shadow States: India, China and the Himalayas, 1910–1962*](https://books.google.com/books?id=FbktDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA235). Cambridge University Press. p. 235. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-107-17679-9](Special:BookSources/978-1-107-17679-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-107-17679-9"). "By invading NEFA, the PRC did not just aim to force a humiliated India to recognise its possession of the Aksai Chin. It also hoped to get, once and for all, the upper hand in their shadowing competition." (b) Chubb, Andrew (2021). ["The Sino-Indian Border Crisis: Chinese Perceptions of Indian Nationalism"](https://books.google.com/books?id=D1crEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA230). In Golley, Jane; Jaivan, Linda; Strange, Sharon (eds.). *Crisis*. Australian National University Press. pp. 231–232. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-76046-439-4](Special:BookSources/978-1-76046-439-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-76046-439-4"). "The ensuing cycle of escalation culminated in the 1962 Sino-Indian border war in which Mao Zedong's troops overran almost the entire state of Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern sector before unilaterally withdrawing, as if to underline the insult; most of the war's several thousand casualties were Indian. The PLA's decisive victories in the 1962 war not only humiliated the Indian Army, they also entrenched a status quo in Ladakh that was highly unfavourable for India, in which China controls almost all of the disputed territory. A nationalistic press and commentariat have kept 1962 vivid in India's popular consciousness." (c) Lintner, Bertil (2018). [*China's India War: Collision Course on the Roof of the World*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-L9DDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT106). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-909163-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-909163-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-909163-8"). "Lin Biao was put in charge of the operation and that alliance between Mao and his loyal de facto chief of the PLA made the attack on India possible. With China's ultimate victory in the war, Mao's ultra-leftist line had won in China; whatever critical voices that were left in the Party after all the purges fell silent." (d) Medcalf, Rory (2020). [*Indo-Pacific Empire: China, America and the contest for the world's pivotal*](https://books.google.com/books?id=RCjXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT81). Manchester University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-5261-5077-6](Special:BookSources/978-1-5261-5077-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-5261-5077-6"). "From an Indian perspective, the China-India war of 1962 was a shocking betrayal of the principles of co-operation and coexistence: a surprise attack that humiliated India and personally broke Nehru." (e) Ganguly, Sumit (1997). [*The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hope of Peace*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Fi66mjIqR1IC&pg=PA44). Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press. p. 44. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-65566-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65566-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65566-8"). "In October 1962 India suffered the most humiliating military debacle in its post-independence history, at the hands of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA). The outcome of this conflict had far-reaching consequences for Indian foreign and defence policies. The harsh defeat that the Chinese PLA had inflicted on the Indian Army called into question some of the most deeply held precepts of Nehru's foreign and defence policies." (f) Raghavan, Srinath (2019). ["A Missed Opportunity? The Nehru-Zhou Enlai Summit of 1960"](https://books.google.com/books?id=h-yoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA121). In Bhagavan, Manu (ed.). *India and the Cold War*. University of North Carolina Press. p. 121. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4696-5117-0](Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-5117-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-5117-0"). "The 'forward policy' adopted by India to prevent the Chinese from occupying territory claimed by them was undertaken in the mistaken belief that Beijing would be cautious in dealing with India owing to Moscow's stance on the dispute and its growing proximity to India. These misjudgments would eventually culminate in India's humiliating defeat in the war of October–November 1962." 248. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-270) [Brahma Chellaney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahma_Chellaney "Brahma Chellaney") (2006). [*Asian Juggernaut: The Rise of China, India, and Japan*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCmFAAAAMAAJ). [HarperCollins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins "HarperCollins"). p. 195. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-81-7223-650-2](Special:BookSources/978-81-7223-650-2 "Special:BookSources/978-81-7223-650-2"). "Indeed, Beijing's acknowledgement of Indian control over Sikkim seems limited to the purpose of facilitating trade through the vertiginous Nathu-la Pass, the scene of bloody artillery duels in September 1967 when Indian troops beat back attacking Chinese forces." 249. 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"In the last 50 years of Indian democracy, the absolute number of missing women has increased fourfold from 15 million to 68 million. This is not merely a reflection of the overall population growth, but rather a worsening of the dangerous trend over time. As a percentage of the female electorate, missing women have gone up significantly — from 13 per cent to approximately 20 per cent" 308. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-The_Guardian_November_17_2019c_330-0) ["More than 63 million women 'missing' in India, statistics show"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/30/more-than-63-million-women-missing-in-india-statistics-show). *[Associated Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press "Associated Press") via [The Guardian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")*. 30 January 2018. 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[doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.4324/9781003325239](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003325239). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-003-32523-9](Special:BookSources/978-1-003-32523-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-003-32523-9"). 316. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Moseley2008_339-0) Moseley, Christopher (10 March 2008). [*Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages*](https://books.google.com/books?id=p-7ON7Rvx_AC&pg=PT528). Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-135-79640-2](Special:BookSources/978-1-135-79640-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-135-79640-2"). 317. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-lerner-Hindi_340-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-lerner-Hindi_340-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-lerner-Hindi_340-2) Lerner, Hanna (2016). 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It was decided that this arrangement would apply for a period of fifteen years, during which time Hindi was to be progressively introduced into official use. What would happen at the end of this interim period was left undetermined, with the Constitution providing for the establishment of a parliamentary committee to examine the issue in the future. In addition, the Constitution recognised fourteen other languages for official use (listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution). ... Fifteen years after the enactment of the Constitution, Hindi was still not widely used by the Union government. Following a series of violent riots in non-Hindi-speaking States in the 1960s, Parliament renounced the ideal of an Indian national language. In 1965, when the fifteen-year interim period prescribed by the Constitution elapsed, the government announced that English would remain the de facto formal language of India." 318. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-isaka-Hindi_341-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-isaka-Hindi_341-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-isaka-Hindi_341-2) Isaka, Riho (2021). [*Language, Identity, and Power in Modern India: Gujarat, c. 1850–1960*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3F5CEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127). Routledge New Horizons in South Asian Studies. Routledge. pp. 126–197. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-000-46858-8](Special:BookSources/978-1-000-46858-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-000-46858-8"). "Partition may have 'killed' Hindustani, but it had a marked effect on the debates regarding the position of English and provincial languages in the Constitution. The Hindi protagonists became even more insistent on establishing Hindi as the sole national language and imposing it on the non-Hindi-speaking regions to enhance 'national unity'. In addition, these leaders even began to argue that the Devanagari form of numerals should be used instead of the international form. This was firmly opposed by members from South India. To solve the continuing dispute among the Assembly members, (K. M.) Munshi and N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, a Tamil member of the Assembly, drew up detailed language provisions. These, in the words of the latter, represented a 'compromise between opinions not easily reconcilable' (Constituent Assembly Debates 1X 1966: 1319). The provisions were proposed to the Congress on 2nd September 1949 and engendered a heated discussion. It was eventually decided that they would be proposed in the Assembly by Munshi, Ayyangar, and Bhimrao Ambedkar (the Chairman of the Drafting Committee) in their personal capacities, not as an official proposal on behalf of the Drafting Committee." 319. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-342) Forrester, Duncan B. (1966). ["The Madras Anti-Hindi Agitation, 1965: Political Protest and its Effects on Language Policy in India"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2755179). *Pacific Affairs*. **39** (1/2): 19–36. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.2307/2755179](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2755179). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier) "ISSN (identifier)") [0030-851X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0030-851X). [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier) "JSTOR (identifier)") [2755179](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2755179). 320. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-343) Sharma, Sandipan (26 January 2026). ["1965: When Republic Day became a morning of mourning in Madras"](https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/1965-anti-hindi-agitation-madras-student-protests-indira-gandhi-intervention-tamil-nadu-language-policy-2857880-2026-01-26). *India Today*. Retrieved 19 April 2026. 321. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-KachruKachru2008-1_344-0) Annamalai, E. (2008). ["Contexts of multilingualism"](https://books.google.com/books?id=O2n4sFGDEMYC&pg=PA223). In Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar (eds.). *Language in South Asia*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-139-46550-2](Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46550-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46550-2"). "Some of the migrated languages ... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native speakers were lost." 322. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-GazzolaWickström2016_345-0) Gazzola, Michele; Wickström, Bengt-Arne (2016). [*The Economics of Language Policy*](https://books.google.com/books?id=C4snDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA469). MIT Press. pp. 469–. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-262-03470-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03470-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-262-03470-8"). "The Eighth Schedule recognizes India's national languages as including the major regional languages as well as others, such as Sanskrit and Urdu, which contribute to India's cultural heritage. ... The original list of fourteen languages in the Eighth Schedule at the time of the adoption of the Constitution in 1949 has now grown to twenty-two." 323. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Groff2017-lead_346-0) Groff, Cynthia (2017). [*The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India: Voices of Women and Educators in the Himalayan Foothills*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qLc7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 58–. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-137-51961-0](Special:BookSources/978-1-137-51961-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-137-51961-0"). "As Mahapatra says: "It is generally believed that the significance for the Eighth Schedule lies in providing a list of languages from which Hindi is directed to draw the appropriate forms, style and expressions for its enrichment" ... Being recognized in the Constitution, however, has had significant relevance for a language's status and functions." 324. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-rupee-15lang_347-0) Gautam, Vanya (5 January 2024). [*Did You Know? Indian Rupee Notes Feature 15 Languages, Here's The List*](https://www.indiatimes.com/worth/news/did-you-know-indian-rupee-notes-feature-15-languages-heres-the-list/articleshow/122444265.html). India Times. 325. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Firstpost_Aug2016_348-0) ["India has 79.8% Hindus, 14.2% Muslims, says 2011 census data on religion"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200426050938/https://www.firstpost.com/india/india-has-79-8-percent-hindus-14-2-percent-muslims-2011-census-data-on-religion-2407708.html). *Firstpost*. 26 August 2016. Archived from [the original](http://firstpost.com/india/india-has-79-8-percent-hindus-14-2-percent-muslims-2016-census-data-on-religion-2407708.html) on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 14 August 2016. 326. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith200894_349-0) [Smith 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFSmith2008), p. 94. 327. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-350) ["Preamble To The Indian Constitution"](https://legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-750-preamble-to-the-indian-constitution.html). *legalserviceindia.com*. 328. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-351) ["S. R. Bommai v. Union of India"](https://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l324-S.-R.-Bommai-v.-Union-of-India.html). *www.legalserviceindia.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20251128111301/https://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l324-S.-R.-Bommai-v.-Union-of-India.html) from the original on 28 November 2025. Retrieved 23 November 2025. 329. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-352) [Basu, Durga Das](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durga_Das_Basu "Durga Das Basu") (2013). *Introduction to the Constitution of India* (21 ed.). LexisNexis. p. 124. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-81-803-8918-4](Special:BookSources/978-81-803-8918-4 "Special:BookSources/978-81-803-8918-4"). 330. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProvisional_Population_Totals_Paper_1_of_2011_India163_353-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEProvisional_Population_Totals_Paper_1_of_2011_India163_353-1) [Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFProvisional_Population_Totals_Paper_1_of_2011_India), p. 163. 331. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-354) Pathania, Rajni (January 2020). ["Literacy in India: Progress and Inequality"](https://www.bangladeshsociology.org/LiteracyinIndiaBEJS17.1.pdf) (PDF). *bangladeshsociology.org*. **17** (1). Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211010044811/http://www.bangladeshsociology.org/LiteracyinIndiaBEJS17.1.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021. 332. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-355) Natarajan, Dandapani (1971). ["Extracts from the All India Census Reports on Literacy"](https://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/366/1/26501_1971_CEN.pdf) (PDF). [Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registrar_General_and_Census_Commissioner_of_India "Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210628052820/http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/366/1/26501_1971_CEN.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021. 333. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-356) Chaudhary, Latika (March 2009). "Determinants of Primary Schooling in British India". *The Journal of Economic History*. **69** (1): 269–302. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1017/S0022050709000400](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050709000400). 334. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-357) ["Study in India"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210627194417/https://www.studyinindia.gov.in/whyindiaeducation). *studyinindia.gov.in*. Archived from [the original](https://www.studyinindia.gov.in/whyindiaeducation) on 27 June 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021. 335. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-highered1_358-0) ["HRD to increase nearly 25 pc seats in varsities to implement 10 pc quota for poor in gen category"](https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/hrd-to-increase-nearly-25-pc-seats-in-varsities-to-implement-10-pc-quota-for-poor-in-gen-category/articleshow/67545006.cms). *[The Economic Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economic_Times "The Economic Times")*. 15 January 2019. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190416152014/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/hrd-to-increase-nearly-25-pc-seats-in-varsities-to-implement-10-pc-quota-for-poor-in-gen-category/articleshow/67545006.cms) from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2021. 336. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-359) ["UDISE+ Dashboard"](https://dashboard.udiseplus.gov.in/#/home). *dashboard.udiseplus.gov.in*. [Ministry of Education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(India) "Ministry of Education (India)"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211018105056/https://dashboard.udiseplus.gov.in/#/home) from the original on 18 October 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021. 337. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Sify_360-0) ["India achieves 27% decline in poverty"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140220170624/https://www.sify.com/finance/india-achieves-27-decline-in-poverty-news-news-jegxaXgfcab.html). *[Press Trust of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Press_Trust_of_India "Press Trust of India") via [Sify.com](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sify.com "Sify.com")*. 12 September 2008. Archived from [the original](https://www.sify.com/finance/fullstory.php?id=1475704) on 20 February 2014. Retrieved 18 October 2021. 338. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-361) N. Jayapalan (2005). [*History of Education in India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=IDNeW78fedkC). Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-81-7156-922-9](Special:BookSources/978-81-7156-922-9 "Special:BookSources/978-81-7156-922-9"). 339. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-hedrick-thomason_362-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-hedrick-thomason_362-1) Headrick, Daniel R. (1988). *The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850–1940*. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 317. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [0-19-505115-7](Special:BookSources/0-19-505115-7 "Special:BookSources/0-19-505115-7"). "The first engineering college was an outgrowth of the Ganges Canal. Named after the lieutenant governor of the North-Western Provinces who founded it in 1847, the Thomason Engineering College at Roorkee trained employees for the irrigation branch of the Public Works Department. It offered different curricula for different types of students: an engineering class for domiciled Europeans and a few Indians, an upper subordinates class to train British noncommissioned officers as construction foremen, and a lower subordinates class to train Indian surveyors. By the mid-1880s, the school has a hundred students, substantial buildings, and a reputation as an important center for the study of hydraulic engineering." 340. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-subram-thomason_363-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-subram-thomason_363-1) Subramanian, Ajantha (2019). *The Caste of Merit: Engineering Education in India*. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press. pp. 30–31. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-674-98788-3](Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98788-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98788-3"). "Before the 1854 despatch, there was already one engineering college in operation: the Thomason College of Civil Engineering at Roorkee." 341. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-who-chan-14-feb-2014_364-0) Chan, Margaret (11 February 2014). [*Address at the 'India celebrates triumph over polio' event*](https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-celebrates-polio-free-india). New Delhi, India: [World Health Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211017165217/https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-celebrates-polio-free-india) from the original on 17 October 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2021. 342. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-365) ["Global Tuberculosis Report 2024 - 1.1 TB incidence"](https://www.who.int/teams/global-programme-on-tuberculosis-and-lung-health/tb-reports/global-tuberculosis-report-2024/tb-disease-burden/1-1-tb-incidence). *World Health Organization*. 14 September 2024. Retrieved 23 August 2025. 343. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-366) Chauhan, Arohi; Parmar, Malik; Dash, Girish Chandra; Solanki, Hardik; Chauhan, Sandeep; Sharma, Jessica; Sahoo, Krushna Chandra; Mahapatra, Pranab; Rao, Raghuram; Kumar, Ravinder; Rade, Kirankumar; Pati, Sanghamitra (3 May 2023). ["The prevalence of tuberculosis infection in India: A systematic review and meta-analysis"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10319385). *Indian Journal of Medical Research*. **157** (2–3): 135–151. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.4103/ijmr.ijmr\_382\_23](https://doi.org/10.4103%2Fijmr.ijmr_382_23). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier) "PMC (identifier)") [10319385](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10319385). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [37202933](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37202933). 344. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-367) ["204 of 238 Indian cities did not meet air quality standards: CREA"](https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/204-of-238-indian-cities-did-not-meet-air-quality-standards-crea/article70712544.ece#:~:text=Cleanest%20city,Meghalaya%2C%20as%20per%20the%20analysis.). *thehindu.com*. Retrieved 7 March 2026. 345. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-368) ["Dirty air: how India became the most polluted country on earth"](https://ig.ft.com/india-pollution/). *Financial Times*. 11 December 2018. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190930130506/https://ig.ft.com/india-pollution/) from the original on 30 September 2019. Retrieved 22 January 2019. 346. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-caste-lead_369-0) - Lagasse, Paul, ed. (2007). ["Caste"](http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/caste.aspx#3). *The Columbia Encyclopedia*. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-231-14446-9](Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14446-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14446-9"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231001133425/https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/anthropology-and-archaeology/anthropology-terms-and-concepts/caste#3) from the original on 1 October 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2012. Quote: "**caste** [Port., casta=basket], ranked groups based on heredity within rigid systems of social stratification, especially those that constitute Hindu India. Some scholars, in fact, deny that true caste systems are found outside India. The caste is a closed group whose members are severely restricted in their choice of occupation and degree of social participation. Marriage outside the caste is prohibited. Social status is determined by the caste of one's birth and may only rarely be transcended." - [Madan, T. N.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._N._Madan "T. N. Madan") (2012). [*caste*](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98395/caste). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130130130911/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98395/caste) from the original on 30 January 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2025. Quote: "**caste**, any of the ranked, hereditary, endogamous social groups, often linked with occupation, that together constitute traditional societies in South Asia, particularly among Hindus in India. Although sometimes used to designate similar groups in other societies, the "caste system" is uniquely developed in Hindu societies." - Gupta, Dipankar (2008). ["Caste"](https://books.google.com/books?id=YMUola6pDnkC&pg=PA246). In Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.). *Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society*. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. pp. 246–250. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4129-2694-2](Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-2694-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-2694-2"). Retrieved 5 August 2012. Quote: "**Caste**: What makes Indian society unique is the phenomenon of caste. Economic, religious, and linguistic differentiations, even race-based discrimination, are known elsewhere, but nowhere else does one see caste but in India." - [Béteille 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBéteille2002), pp. 136–137. Quote: "**Caste**: Caste has been described as the fundamental social institution of India. Sometimes the term is used metaphorically to refer to rigid social distinctions or extreme social exclusiveness wherever found, and some authorities have used the term 'colour-caste system' to describe the stratification based on race in the United States and elsewhere. But it is among the Hindus in India that we find the system in its most fully developed form although analogous forms exist among Muslims, Christians. Sikhs and other religious groups in South Asia. It is an ancient institution, having existed for at least 2,000 years among the Hindus who developed not only elaborate caste practices hut also a complex theory to explain and justify those practices (Dumont 1970). The theory has now lost much of its force although many of the practices continue." - Mitchell, Geoffrey Duncan (2006). ["Castes (part of SOCIAL STRATIFICATION)"](https://books.google.com/books?id=-a4vvdBrSVgC&pg=PA194). *A New Dictionary of the Social Sciences*. New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction Publishers. pp. 194–195. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-202-30878-4](Special:BookSources/978-0-202-30878-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-202-30878-4"). Retrieved 10 August 2012. Quote:"**Castes** A pure caste system is rooted in the religious order and may be thought of as a hierarchy of hereditary, endogamous, occupational groups with positions fixed and mobility barred by ritual distances between each caste. Empirically, the classical Hindu system of India approximated most closely to pure caste. The system existed for some 3,000 years and continues today despite many attempts to get rid of some of its restrictions. It is essentially connected with Hinduism." - ["caste, n."](http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/28546). *Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition; online version June 2012*. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1989. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150924123226/http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/28546) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2019. Quote: "**caste, n.** 2a. spec. One of the several hereditary classes into which society in India has from time immemorial been divided; ... *This is now the leading sense, which influences all others*." 347. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-atrey1_371-0) Atrey, Shreya (2019). *Intersectional Discrimination*. Oxford, UK and New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 63–64. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-884895-0](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-884895-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-884895-0"). 348. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-nyt-india-constit-assmb-caste_372-0) "Indians Outlaw 'Untouchability' In Formal Action by Assembly; UNTOUCHABILITY' FORMALLY BANNED". Reuters/New York Times. 30 April 1947. "NEW DELHI, India, April 29 -- India's Constituent Assembly, discussing the Fundamental Rights Committee's report, today adopted this provision: "Untouchability in any form is abolished and the imposition of any disability on that account shall be an offense." 349. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-373) Teltumbde, Anand (2010). *The Persistence of Caste: The Khairlanji Murders and India's Hidden Apartheid*. Bloomsbury Academic. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-84813-449-2](Special:BookSources/978-1-84813-449-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-84813-449-2"). 350. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-374) Taylor, Sarah (28 June 2022). ["The struggle to challenge India's caste system remains real, still"](https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-06-28/struggle-to-challenge-indias-caste-system/101185772). *[ABC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation "Australian Broadcasting Corporation")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240713213206/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-06-28/struggle-to-challenge-indias-caste-system/101185772) from the original on 13 July 2024. Retrieved 11 July 2025. 351. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakar2007_375-0) [Makar 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMakar2007). 352. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMedora2003_376-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMedora2003_376-1) [Medora 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMedora2003). 353. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesRamdas2005111_377-0) [Jones & Ramdas 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFJonesRamdas2005), p. 111. 354. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-378) Biswas, Soutik (29 September 2016). ["What divorce and separation tell us about modern India"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-37481054). [BBC News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News "BBC News"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210321061012/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-37481054) from the original on 21 March 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021. 355. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullen-Dupont200996_379-0) [Cullen-Dupont 2009](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFCullen-Dupont2009), p. 96. 356. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Agarwal1994_380-0) [Agarwal, Bina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bina_Agarwal "Bina Agarwal") (1994). [*A Field of One's Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3pdP30OnEUC&pg=PA264). Cambridge University Press. p. 264. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-42926-9](Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42926-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42926-9"). "Mayer's (1960: 219) observation for central India would not be inaccurate for most communities in the subcontinent: "A man's tie with his sister is accounted very close. The two have grown up together, at an age when there is no distinction made between the sexes. And later, when the sister marries, the brother is seen as her main protector, for when her father has died to whom else can she turn if there is trouble in her conjugal household.(Adrian C. Mayer, *Caste and kinship in Central India* (1960)" The parental home, and after the parents' death the brother's home, often offers the only possibility of temporary or longer-term support in case of divorce, desertion, and even widowhood, especially for a woman without adult sons. Her dependence on this support is directly related to economic and social vulnerability." 357. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Coleman2017_381-0) Coleman, Leo (2017). [*A Moral Technology: Electrification as Political Ritual in New Delhi*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6YDTDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT127). Cornell University Press. p. 127. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-5017-0791-9](Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-0791-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-0791-9"). Quote: Rakhi and its local performances in Kishan Garhi were part of a festival in which connections between out-marrying sisters and village-resident brothers were affirmed. In the "traditional" form of this rite, according to Marriott, sisters exchanged with their brothers to ensure their ability to have recourse—at a crisis, or during childbearing—to their natal village and their relatives there even after leaving for their husband's home. For their part, brothers engaging in these exchanges affirmed the otherwise hard-to-discern moral solidarity of the natal family, even after their sister's marriage. 358. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowland1970185–198,_252,_385–466_382-0) [Rowland 1970](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRowland1970), pp. 185–198, 252, 385–466. 359. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraven199714–16_383-0) [Craven 1997](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFCraven1997), pp. 14–16. 360. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle199417–18_384-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle199417–18_384-1) [Harle 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFHarle1994), pp. 17–18. 361. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowland197046–47_385-0) [Rowland 1970](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRowland1970), pp. 46–47. 362. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraven199735–46_386-0) [Craven 1997](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFCraven1997), pp. 35–46. 363. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowland197067–70_387-0) [Rowland 1970](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRowland1970), pp. 67–70. 364. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle199422–24_388-0) [Harle 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFHarle1994), pp. 22–24. 365. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraven199722,_88_389-0) [Craven 1997](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFCraven1997), pp. 22, 88. 366. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowland197035,_99–100_390-0) [Rowland 1970](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRowland1970), pp. 35, 99–100. 367. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraven199718–19_391-0) [Craven 1997](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFCraven1997), pp. 18–19. 368. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlurton1993151_392-0) [Blurton 1993](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBlurton1993), p. 151. 369. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle199432–38_393-0) [Harle 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFHarle1994), pp. 32–38. 370. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle199443–55_394-0) [Harle 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFHarle1994), pp. 43–55. 371. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowland1970113–119_395-0) [Rowland 1970](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRowland1970), pp. 113–119. 372. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlurton199310–11_396-0) [Blurton 1993](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBlurton1993), pp. 10–11. 373. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraven1997111–121_397-0) [Craven 1997](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFCraven1997), pp. 111–121. 374. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichell200044–70_398-0) [Michell 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMichell2000), pp. 44–70. 375. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle1994212–216_399-0) [Harle 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFHarle1994), pp. 212–216. 376. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraven1997152–160_400-0) [Craven 1997](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFCraven1997), pp. 152–160. 377. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlurton1993225–227_401-0) [Blurton 1993](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBlurton1993), pp. 225–227. 378. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle1994356–361_402-0) [Harle 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFHarle1994), pp. 356–361. 379. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowland1970242–251_403-0) [Rowland 1970](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRowland1970), pp. 242–251. 380. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle1994361–370_404-0) [Harle 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFHarle1994), pp. 361–370. 381. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraven1997202–208_405-0) [Craven 1997](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFCraven1997), pp. 202–208. 382. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle1994372–382,_400–406_406-0) [Harle 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFHarle1994), pp. 372–382, 400–406. 383. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraven1997222–243_407-0) [Craven 1997](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFCraven1997), pp. 222–243. 384. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle1994384–397,_407–420_408-0) [Harle 1994](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFHarle1994), pp. 384–397, 407–420. 385. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraven1997243_409-0) [Craven 1997](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFCraven1997), p. 243. 386. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichell2000210_410-0) [Michell 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMichell2000), p. 210. 387. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichell2000210–211_411-0) [Michell 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFMichell2000), pp. 210–211. 388. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlurton1993211_412-0) [Blurton 1993](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBlurton1993), p. 211. 389. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-hayashi2005-p363_413-0) [Hayashi 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFHayashi2005), p. 363 390. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-plofker_414-0) [Plofker 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFPlofker2007), p. 1 391. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-filliozat-p140to143_415-0) [Filliozat 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFFilliozat2004), pp. 140–143 392. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-hayashi95_417-0) [Hayashi 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFHayashi1995) 393. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-plofker-brit6_418-0) [Plofker 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFPlofker2007), p. 6 394. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-irfah346_419-0) [Ifrah 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFIfrah2000), p. 346: "The measure of the genius of Indian civilisation, to which we owe our modern (number) system, is all the greater in that it was the only one in all history to have achieved this triumph. Some cultures succeeded, earlier than the Indian, in discovering one or at best two of the characteristics of this intellectual feat. But none of them managed to bring together into a complete and coherent system the necessary and sufficient conditions for a number-system with the same potential as our own." 395. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-420) [Plofker 2009](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFPlofker2009), pp. 44–47 396. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-bourbaki46_421-0) [Bourbaki 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBourbaki1998), p. 46: "...our decimal system, which (by the agency of the Arabs) is derived from Hindu mathematics, where its use is attested already from the first centuries of our era. It must be noted moreover that the conception of zero as a number and not as a simple symbol of separation) and its introduction into calculations, also count amongst the original contribution of the Hindus." 397. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-bourbaki49_422-0) [Bourbaki 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBourbaki1998), p. 49: Modern arithmetic was known during medieval times as "Modus Indorum" or method of the Indians. [Leonardo of Pisa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_of_Pisa "Leonardo of Pisa") wrote that compared to method of the Indians all other methods is a mistake. This method of the Indians is none other than our very simple arithmetic of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Rules for these four simple procedures was first written down by [Brahmagupta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmagupta "Brahmagupta") during the 7th century AD. "On this point, the Hindus are already conscious of the interpretation that negative numbers must have in certain cases (a debt in a commercial problem, for instance). In the following centuries, as there is a diffusion into the West (by intermediary of the Arabs) of the methods and results of Greek and Hindu mathematics, one becomes more used to the handling of these numbers, and one begins to have other "representation" for them which are geometric or dynamic." 398. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-concise-britannica_423-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-concise-britannica_423-1) "algebra" 2007. [*Britannica Concise Encyclopedia*](https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-231064) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070929134632/http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-231064) 29 September 2007 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") Category: ./Category:Webarchive\_template\_wayback\_links . Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May 2007. Quote: "A full-fledged decimal, positional system certainly existed in India by the 9th century (AD), yet many of its central ideas had been transmitted well before that time to China and the Islamic world. Indian arithmetic, moreover, developed consistent and correct rules for operating with positive and negative numbers and for treating zero like any other number, even in problematic contexts such as division. Several hundred years passed before European mathematicians fully integrated such ideas into the developing discipline of algebra." 399. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-424) [Pingree 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFPingree2003), p. 45 Quote: "Geometry, and its branch trigonometry, was the mathematics Indian astronomers used most frequently. Greek mathematicians used the full chord and never imagined the half chord that we use today. Half chord was first used by Aryabhata which made trigonometry much more simple. In fact, the Indian astronomers in the third or fourth century, using a pre-Ptolemaic Greek table of chords, produced tables of sines and versines, from which it was trivial to derive cosines. This new system of trigonometry, produced in India, was transmitted to the Arabs in the late eighth century and by them, in an expanded form, to the Latin West and the Byzantine East in the twelfth century." 400. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-425) [Bourbaki 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBourbaki1998), p. 126: "As for trigonometry, it is disdained by geometers and abandoned to surveyors and astronomers; it is these latter ([Aristarchus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos "Aristarchus of Samos"), [Hipparchus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus "Hipparchus"), [Ptolemy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy "Ptolemy")) who establish the fundamental relations between the sides and angles of a right angled triangle (plane or spherical) and draw up the first tables (they consist of tables giving the *chord* of the arc cut out by an angle θ < π {\displaystyle \theta <\pi } ![{\displaystyle \theta <\pi }](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/053c2f5cb3d9460d5fe43fcc48920484fb2ce4c2) on a circle of radius *r*, in other words the number 2 r sin ⁡ ( θ / 2 ) {\displaystyle 2r\sin \left(\theta /2\right)} ![{\displaystyle 2r\sin \left(\theta /2\right)}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4ca756adcc10a403716e769f6214640ed6802c32); the introduction of the sine, more easily handled, is due to Hindu mathematicians of the Middle Ages)." 401. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-427) [Stillwell 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFStillwell2004), p. 173 402. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-hardy-ramanumajan-notice_428-0) [Hardy, G. H.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._H._Hardy "G. H. Hardy") (2015) [1927]. "Notice". *Collected papers of Srinivasa Ramanujan*. Cambridge University Press. pp. xxi–xxxv. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-107-53651-7](Special:BookSources/978-1-107-53651-7 "Special:BookSources/978-1-107-53651-7"). "It was his insight into algebraical formulae, transformation of infinite series, ... that was most amazing. On this side most certainly I have never met his equal, and I can compare him only with [Euler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler "Leonhard Euler") and [Jacobi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jacob_Jacobi "Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi"). He worked, far more than the majority of modern mathematicians, by induction from numerical examples. ... But with his memory, his patience, and his power of calculation, he combined a power of generalisation, a feeling for form, and a capacity for rapid modification of his hypotheses, that were often really startling, and made him, in his own peculiar field, without a rival in his day." 403. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-429) Capwell, Charles (2012). "The Music of India". *Excursions in World Music* (6th ed.). [Pearson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_plc "Pearson plc"). pp. 31, 52. 404. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-430) Lavezzoli, Peter (24 April 2006). *The Dawn of Indian Music in the West*. p. 14. 405. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-431) Sarrazin, Natalie (2019). *Focus: Popular Music in Contemporary India*. [Taylor & Francis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_&_Francis "Taylor & Francis"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-429-99931-4](Special:BookSources/978-0-429-99931-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-429-99931-4"). 406. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-2) [4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-3) [5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-4) [6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-5) [7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-6) [8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-7) [9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-8) [10](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-9) [11](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-10) [12](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-11) [13](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-vatsyayan-lord_432-12) Vatsyayan, Kapila; Lord, Maria (revision) (2020) [2001]. "India, subcontinent of, IX. Dance". *Grove Music Online*. Oxford University Press. 407. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-436) Bishnupriya Dutt; Urmimala Sarkar Munsi (2010). [*Engendering Performance: Indian Women Performers in Search of an Identity*](https://books.google.com/books?id=uNaGAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA216). SAGE Publications. p. 216. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-81-321-0612-8](Special:BookSources/978-81-321-0612-8 "Special:BookSources/978-81-321-0612-8"). 408. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-burch-2013_438-0) Frank Burch Brown (2013). [*The Oxford Handbook of Religion and the Arts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=X8g8BAAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. pp. 195–196. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-972103-0](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-972103-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-972103-0")., Quote: All of the dances considered to be part of the Indian classical canon (Bharata Natyam, Chhau, Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Mohiniattam, Odissi, Sattriya, and Yakshagana) trace their roots to religious practices (...) the Indian diaspora has led to the translocation of Hindu dances to Europe, North America and the world." 409. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Tarlo1996-26_439-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Tarlo1996-26_439-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Tarlo1996-26_439-2) [4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Tarlo1996-26_439-3) [Tarlo 1996](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFTarlo1996), p. 26 410. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Tarlo1996-26-28_440-0) [Tarlo 1996](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFTarlo1996), pp. 26–28 411. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Rahman-Alkazi2002_441-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Rahman-Alkazi2002_441-1) Alkazi, Roshen (2002). ["Evolution of Indian Costume as a result of the links between Central Asia and India in ancient and medieval times"](https://books.google.com/books?id=NZvpAAAAMAAJ). In Rahman, Abdur (ed.). *India's Interaction with China, Central and West Asia*. [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). pp. 464–484. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-565789-0](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-565789-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-565789-0"). 412. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-StevensonWaite2011_442-0) Stevenson, Angus; Waite, Maurice (2011). [*Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1272). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). p. 1272. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-960110-3](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960110-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960110-3"). Retrieved 3 September 2019. 413. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-StevensonWaite2011-b_443-0) Stevenson, Angus; Waite, Maurice (2011). [*Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA774). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). p. 774. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-960110-3](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960110-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960110-3"). 414. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-444) Platts, John T. (John Thompson) (1884). [*A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English*](https://web.archive.org/web/20210224204345/https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/platts_query.py?page=418). London: [W. H. Allen & Co.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._H._Allen_&_Co. "W. H. Allen & Co.") p. 418. Archived from [the original](https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/platts_query.py?page=418) on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 26 August 2019. (online; updated February 2015) 415. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Shukla2015_445-0) Shukla, Pravina (2015). [*The Grace of Four Moons: Dress, Adornment, and the Art of the Body in Modern India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MlObCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71). [Indiana University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_University_Press "Indiana University Press"). p. 71. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-253-02121-2](Special:BookSources/978-0-253-02121-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-253-02121-2"). 416. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Dwyer2014_446-0) [Dwyer, Rachel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Dwyer "Rachel Dwyer") (2014). [*Bollywood's India: Hindi Cinema as a Guide to Contemporary India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=DqwBBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA244). [Reaktion Books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaktion_Books "Reaktion Books"). pp. 244–245. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-78023-304-8](Special:BookSources/978-1-78023-304-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-78023-304-8"). 417. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-phanek_447-0) Haripriya, Soibam (2024). "Irom Sharmila's Poetry and the Problem of Anthologizing Indian Literature". In Anjaria, Ulka; Nerleker, Anjali= (eds.). *The Oxford Handbook of Modern Indian Literatures*. Oxford University Press. p. 423. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-764791-2](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-764791-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-764791-2"). 418. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-bloomsbury-indian-khameri-roti_448-0) Kohli, Megha (2023). "Breads". In Taylor Sen, Colleen; Bhattacharyya, Sourish; Saberi, Helen (eds.). *The Blooomsbury Handbook of Indian Cuisine*. London, New York, and Dublin: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 60. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-3501-2863-7](Special:BookSources/978-1-3501-2863-7 "Special:BookSources/978-1-3501-2863-7"). "*Khamiri roti* is the Indian version of [sourdough bread](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sourdough_bread "Sourdough bread"). "Khamir" means yeast or starter in [Urdu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urdu "Urdu"). ... It is made in a tandoor. ... The culture of purchasaing breads from outside is Central Asian and came to India with the Mughals. The best *khamiri roti* is sold in various shops in [Old Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Delhi "Old Delhi") run by people who claim to be the direct descendants of the cooks who worked for the Mughals and use the same recipe as their ancestors." 419. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Panjabi1995_450-0) Panjabi, Camellia (1995). [*The Great Curries of India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=TYCFJMLZ_-4C&pg=PA158). [Simon and Schuster](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_and_Schuster "Simon and Schuster"). pp. 158–. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-684-80383-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80383-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80383-8"). "The Muslim influenced breads of India are leavened, like *naan*, *Khamiri roti*, ..." 420. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Davidson2014-p409_451-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Davidson2014-p409_451-1) Davidson, Alan (2014). [*The Oxford Companion to Food*](https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA409). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). p. 409. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-967733-7](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967733-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967733-7"). 421. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Davidson2014-p161_452-0) Davidson, Alan (2014). [*The Oxford Companion to Food*](https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). p. 161. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-967733-7](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967733-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967733-7"). "Chapatis are made from finely milled whole-wheat flour, called chapati flour or atta, and water. The dough is rolled into thin rounds which vary in size from region to region and then cooked without fat or oil on a slightly curved griddle called a tava." 422. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-tamang-yeast-idlidosa_453-0) Tamang, J. P.; Fleet, G. H. (2009). ["Yeasts Diversity in Fermented Foods and Beverages"](https://books.google.com/books?id=jLFmiervaqMC&pg=PA180). In Satyanarayana, T.; Kunze, G. (eds.). *Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications*. Springer. p. 180. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4020-8292-4](Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8292-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-8292-4"). "Idli is an acid-leavened and steamed cake made by bacterial fermentation of a thick batter made from coarsely ground rice and dehulled black gram. Idli cakes are soft, moist and spongy, have desirable sour flavour, and is eaten as breakfast in South India. Dosa batter is very similar to idli batter, except that both the rice and black gram are finely grounded. The batter is thinner than that of idli and is fried as a thin, crisp pancake and eaten directly in South India." 423. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-jhala-princely-biryani_454-0) Jhala, Angma Day (2015). [*Royal Patronage, Power and Aesthetics in Princely India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WGpECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA70). Routledge. p. 70. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-317-31657-2](Special:BookSources/978-1-317-31657-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-317-31657-2"). "With the ascent of the Mughal Empire in sixteenth-century India, Turkic, Persian and Afghan traditions of dress, 'architecture and cuisine' were adopted by non-Muslim indigenous elites in South Asia. In this manner, Central Asian cooking merged with older traditions within the subcontinent, to create such signature dishes as biryani (a fusion of the Persian pilau and the spice-laden dishes of Hindustan), and the Kashmiri meat stew of Rogan Josh. It not only generated new dishes and entire cuisines, but also fostered novel modes of eating. Such newer trends included the consumption of Persian condiments, which relied heavily on almonds, pastries and quince jams, alongside Indian achars made from sweet limes, green vegetables and curds as side relishes during Mughlai meals." 424. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Davidson2014-p410_455-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Davidson2014-p410_455-1) Davidson, Alan (2014). [*The Oxford Companion to Food*](https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA410). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). p. 410. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-967733-7](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967733-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-967733-7"). 425. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-456) Biswas, Soutik (4 April 2018). ["The myth of the Indian vegetarian nation"](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-43581122). *[BBC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC "BBC")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180808011417/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-43581122) from the original on 8 August 2018. Retrieved 16 July 2025. 426. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-457) ["Religion in India: Tolerance and Segregation | Religion and food"](https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/06/29/religion-and-food/). *[Pew Research Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pew_Research_Center "Pew Research Center")*. 29 June 2021. 427. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-SahakianSaloma2016-50_458-0) Sahakian, Marlyne; Saloma, Czarina; Erkman, Suren (2016). [*Food Consumption in the City: Practices and patterns in urban Asia and the Pacific*](https://books.google.com/books?id=TBIxDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT50). [Taylor & Francis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_&_Francis "Taylor & Francis"). p. 50. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-317-31050-1](Special:BookSources/978-1-317-31050-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-317-31050-1"). 428. [1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-CollinghamCollingham2007_459-0) [2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-CollinghamCollingham2007_459-1) [3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-CollinghamCollingham2007_459-2) Collingham, Elizabeth M. (2007). [*Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pH88DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). p. 25. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-532001-5](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532001-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532001-5"). 429. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoger2000_460-0) [Roger 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRoger2000). 430. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-sengupta-74_461-0) Sengupta, Jayanta (2014). ["India"](https://books.google.com/books?id=SNQkDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74). In Freedman, Paul; Chaplin, Joyce E.; Albala, Ken (eds.). *Food in Time and Place: The American Historical Association Companion to Food History*. [University of California Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Press "University of California Press"). p. 74. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-520-27745-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-520-27745-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-520-27745-8"). 431. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-nandy2004_462-0) [Nandy, Ashis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashis_Nandy "Ashis Nandy") (2004). "The Changing Popular Culture of Indian Food: Preliminary Notes". *[South Asia Research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia_Research "South Asia Research")*. **24** (1): 9–19. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1177/0262728004042760](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0262728004042760). 432. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-mango-national-fruit_463-0) Haidar, Sakina; Hussain, Sajjad; Naz, Safina; Ali, Sajid; Noor, Anam (2025). "Introduction and History of Mango". In Hussain, Sajjad; Nahar, Kamrun; Rajwana, Ishtiaq A.; Ercisli, Sezai; Ahmad, Shakeel (eds.). *Handbook of Research on Mango Fruit: Postharvest Science, Production, Nutrition, and Processing Technology*. CRC Press, Routledge. p. 1–2. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-77964-338-4](Special:BookSources/978-1-77964-338-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-77964-338-4"). 433. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Kuhn_464-0) Kuhn, David N.; Bally, Ian S. E.; Dillon, Natalie L.; Innes, David; Groh, Amy M.; Rahaman, Jordon; Ophir, Ron; Cohen, Yuval; Sherman, Amir (20 April 2017). ["Genetic Map of Mango: A Tool for Mango Breeding"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5397511). *Frontiers in Plant Science*. **8** 577. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2017FrPS....8..577K](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017FrPS....8..577K). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.3389/fpls.2017.00577](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpls.2017.00577). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier) "PMC (identifier)") [5397511](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5397511). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [28473837](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28473837). 434. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-Warschefsky_465-0) Warschefsky, Emily J.; Wettberg, Eric J. B. (June 2019). ["Population genomic analysis of mango (*Mangifera indica*) suggests a complex history of domestication"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnph.15731). *New Phytologist*. **222** (4): 2023–2037. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2019NewPh.222.2023W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NewPh.222.2023W). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1111/nph.15731](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnph.15731). [PMID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) "PMID (identifier)") [30730057](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30730057). 435. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolpert20032_467-0) [Wolpert 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFWolpert2003), p. 2. 436. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERediff_2008_b_468-0) [Rediff 2008 b](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFRediff_2008_b). 437. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-469) ["Candidates' R13: Anand Draws, Clinches Rematch with Carlsen"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150111220728/https://www.chessvibes.com/candidates%E2%80%99-r13-anand-draws-clinches-rematch-with-carlsen). Archived from [the original](https://www.chessvibes.com/candidates%E2%80%99-r13-anand-draws-clinches-rematch-with-carlsen) on 11 January 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2018. 438. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBinmore200798_470-0) [Binmore 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFBinmore2007), p. 98. 439. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-471) Shores, Lori (15 February 2007). [*Teens in India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=CPQmbyiS-iEC). [Compass Point Books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass_Point_Books "Compass Point Books"). p. 78. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-7565-2063-2](Special:BookSources/978-0-7565-2063-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7565-2063-2"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120617050252/https://books.google.com/books?id=CPQmbyiS-iEC) from the original on 17 June 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2011. 440. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-472) Das, Ranit (14 August 2017). ["What India was crazy about: Hockey first, Cricket later, Football, Kabaddi now?"](https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/other-sports/story/independence-day-india-at-70-cricket-football-hockey-kabaddi-1029624-2017-08-14). *India Today*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230104013320/https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/other-sports/story/independence-day-india-at-70-cricket-football-hockey-kabaddi-1029624-2017-08-14) from the original on 4 January 2023. Retrieved 2 March 2025. 441. [↑](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#cite_ref-guardian-gukesh_473-0) Graham, Bryan Armen (12 December 2024). ["Gukesh Dommaraju becomes youngest world chess champion after horrific Ding Liren blunder"](https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2024/dec/12/gukesh-dommaraju-india-wins-world-chess-championship-youngest-champion-ding-liren). *The Guardian*. ## Bibliography ### Overview - ["India"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210111023536/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/). *[The World Factbook](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Factbook "The World Factbook")*. [Central Intelligence Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency "Central Intelligence Agency"). Archived from [the original](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/) on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2021. - ["Country Profile: India"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110927131058/https://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf) (PDF). *[Library of Congress Country Studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies "Library of Congress Country Studies")* (5th ed.). Library of Congress [Federal Research Division](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Research_Division "Federal Research Division"). December 2004. Archived from [the original](https://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf) (PDF) on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 30 September 2011. - Heitzman, James; Worden, Robert L. (1996). [*India: A Country Study*](https://archive.org/details/indiacountrystud0000unse). Area Handbook Series. Washington, D.C.: [Library of Congress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress "Library of Congress"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-8444-0833-0](Special:BookSources/978-0-8444-0833-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8444-0833-0"). - [*Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011 India*](https://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_results_paper1_india.html). [Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registrar_General_and_Census_Commissioner_of_India "Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210909032654/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_results_paper1_india.html) from the original on 9 September 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021. - Robinson, Francis, ed. *The Cambridge Encyclopedia of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and the Maldives* (1989) - [*Constituent Assembly of India – Volume XII*](https://web.archive.org/web/20110721173243/https://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/debates/vol12p1.htm). [National Informatics Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Informatics_Centre "National Informatics Centre"), [Government of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India"). 24 January 1950. Archived from [the original](https://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/debates/vol12p1.htm) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2011. ### Etymology - Barrow, Ian J. (2003). "From Hindustan to India: Naming change in changing names". *South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies*. **26** (1): 37–49. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1080/085640032000063977](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F085640032000063977). - Clémentin-Ojha, Catherine (2014). "'India, that is Bharat...': One Country, Two Names". *South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal*. **10**. ### History - Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C. (2006). [*India Before Europe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC). [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-80904-7](Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80904-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80904-7"). - Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C. (2008). *India Before Europe t*. [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-51750-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51750-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51750-8"). - Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C. (2022). *India Before Europe*. [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-108-42816-3](Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42816-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42816-3"). - [Brown, J. M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_M._Brown "Judith M. Brown") (1994). [*Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy*](https://books.google.com/books?id=PaKdsF8WzbcC). [The Short Oxford History of the Modern World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Short_Oxford_History_of_the_Modern_World "The Short Oxford History of the Modern World") (2nd ed.). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-873113-9](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873113-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873113-9"). - Copland, I. (2001). [*India 1885–1947: The Unmaking of an Empire*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw1uAAAAMAAJ). [Longman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longman "Longman"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-582-38173-5](Special:BookSources/978-0-582-38173-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-582-38173-5"). - Doniger, Wendy (2014). [*On Hinduism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=fUnaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR18). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). pp. xviii, 10. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-936009-3](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936009-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936009-3"). - Elverskog, Johan (2020). *The Buddha's Footprint: An Environmental History of Asia*. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-8122-5183-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-5183-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-5183-8"). - Flood, Gavin D. (1996). [*An Introduction to Hinduism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA35). [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-43878-0](Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43878-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43878-0"). - Gilbert, Marc Jason (2017). *South Asia in World History*. The New Oxford World History series. Oxford University Press. pp. 54–56. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-517653-7](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517653-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517653-7"). - Judd, Denis (2004). *The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600–1947*. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 280. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-280358-0](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280358-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280358-0"). - [Kulke, H.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Kulke "Hermann Kulke"); Rothermund, D. (2004). [*A History of India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC). 4th. [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-415-32920-0](Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32920-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32920-0"). - [Kulke, H.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Kulke "Hermann Kulke"); Rothermund, D. (2016). *A History of India*. 6th. [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-138-96114-2](Special:BookSources/978-1-138-96114-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-138-96114-2"). - Lowe, John J. (2015). [*Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The Syntax and Semantics of Adjectival Verb Forms*](https://books.google.com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-100505-3](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100505-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100505-3"). - Ludden, D. (2002). *India and South Asia: A Short History*. [Oneworld Publications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oneworld_Publications "Oneworld Publications"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-85168-237-9](Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-237-9 "Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-237-9"). - Ludden, D. (2014). [*India and South Asia: A Short History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pBq9DwAAQBAJ) (2nd, revised ed.). [Oneworld Publications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oneworld_Publications "Oneworld Publications"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-85168-936-1](Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-936-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-85168-936-1"). - [Metcalf, Barbara D.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Metcalf "Barbara Metcalf"); [Metcalf, Thomas R.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_R._Metcalf "Thomas R. Metcalf") (2006). [*A Concise History of Modern India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C) (2nd ed.). [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-68225-1](Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68225-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68225-1"). - Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2012). [*A Concise History of Modern India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC). [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-107-02649-0](Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02649-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02649-0"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230713021259/https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC) from the original on 13 July 2023. Retrieved 13 August 2019. - Peers, D. M. (2006). [*India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6iNuAAAAMAAJ). [Pearson Longman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_Education "Pearson Education"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-582-31738-3](Special:BookSources/978-0-582-31738-3 "Special:BookSources/978-0-582-31738-3"). - [Flood, Gavin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_Flood "Gavin Flood") (2020). ["Introduction"](https://books.google.com/books?id=4yT3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4). In Gavin Flood (ed.). *The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu Practice*. [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-105322-1](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-105322-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-105322-1"). - Iori, Elisa (2023). ["Releasing Urban Religion beyond the City Wall: The Spatial Capital of Early Buddhist Monasticism in NW South Asia"](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15685276-20231691). *Numen*. **70** (2–3): 184–219. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1163/15685276-20231691](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15685276-20231691). [hdl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier) "Hdl (identifier)"):[10278/5079362](https://hdl.handle.net/10278%2F5079362). - [Jamison, Stephanie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanie_W._Jamison "Stephanie W. Jamison"); Brereton, Joel (2020). [*The Rigveda*](https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-063339-4](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-063339-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-063339-4"). - Mattern, Susan (2019). *The Slow Moon Climbs: The Science, History, and Meaning of Menopause*. Princeton, NJ, and London: Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-691-17163-0](Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17163-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17163-0"). - [Michaels, Axel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel_Michaels "Axel Michaels") (2017). Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis (ed.). [*The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmaśāstra*](https://books.google.com/books?id=QAJCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA86). Oxford: [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-100709-5](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100709-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100709-5"). - Peers, D. M. (2013). [*India Under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dyQuAgAAQBAJ). [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-317-88286-2](Special:BookSources/978-1-317-88286-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-317-88286-2"). Retrieved 13 August 2019. - Petraglia, Michael D.; [Allchin, Bridget](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridget_Allchin "Bridget Allchin") (2007). ["Human evolution and culture change in the Indian subcontinent"](https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA6). In Michael Petraglia; Bridget Allchin (eds.). *The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics*. [Springer Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Publishing "Springer Publishing"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4020-5562-1](Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5562-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5562-1"). - Robb, P. (2001). [*A History of India*](https://archive.org/details/historyofindia00pete). [Palgrave](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan "Palgrave Macmillan"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-333-69129-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-333-69129-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-333-69129-8"). - Robb, P. (2011). [*A History of India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC). [Palgrave Macmillan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan "Palgrave Macmillan"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-230-34549-2](Special:BookSources/978-0-230-34549-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-230-34549-2"). - [Roy, Tirthankar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirthankar_Roy "Tirthankar Roy") (2012). *India in the World Economy: From Antiquity to the Present*. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-107-00910-3](Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00910-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00910-3"). - Sarkar, S. (1983). [*Modern India: 1885–1947*](https://books.google.com/books?id=rVxuAAAAMAAJ). Delhi: [Macmillan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers "Macmillan Publishers"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-333-90425-1](Special:BookSources/978-0-333-90425-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-333-90425-1"). - Singh, Upinder (2017). [*Political Violence in Ancient India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dYM4DwAAQBAJ). [Harvard University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Press "Harvard University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-674-98128-7](Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98128-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-674-98128-7"). - [Spear, Percival](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percival_Spear "Percival Spear") (1990) [1978]. [*History of India, Volume 2: From the sixteenth century to the twentieth century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=K2H_v0t5jTkC). Penguin. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-140-13836-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-140-13836-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-140-13836-8"). - Sripati, V. (1998). "Toward Fifty Years of Constitutionalism and Fundamental Rights in India: Looking Back to See Ahead (1950–2000)". *[American University International Law Review](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_University_International_Law_Review "American University International Law Review")*. **14** (2): 413–496. - [Stein, B.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burton_Stein "Burton Stein") (2010). Arnold, D. (ed.). [*A History of India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC) (2nd ed.). Oxford: [Wiley-Blackwell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell "Wiley-Blackwell"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4051-9509-6](Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9509-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9509-6"). - [Witzel, Michael](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Witzel "Michael Witzel") (2003). ["Vedas and Upanișads"](https://books.google.com/books?id=qSfneQ0YYY8C). In Gavin D. Flood (ed.). *The Blackwell companion to Hinduism*. [John Wiley & Sons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_&_Sons "John Wiley & Sons"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-631-21535-6](Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21535-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21535-6"). Retrieved 15 March 2012. - [Wolpert, S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Wolpert "Stanley Wolpert") (2003). *A New History of India* (7th ed.). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-516678-1](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516678-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516678-1"). - [Wright, Rita P.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rita_P._Wright "Rita P. Wright") (2010). [*The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ). [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press_&_Assessment "Cambridge University Press & Assessment"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-57219-4](Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57219-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57219-4"). Retrieved 29 September 2013. ### Geography - Ali, J. R.; Aitchison, J. C. (2005). "Greater India". *[Earth-Science Reviews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth-Science_Reviews "Earth-Science Reviews")*. **72** (3–4): 170–173. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2005ESRv...72..169A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005ESRv...72..169A). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.07.005](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.earscirev.2005.07.005). - Basu, Mahua; Xavier, Savarimuthu (2017). [*Fundamentals of Environmental Studies*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nXmLDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78). [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-316-87051-8](Special:BookSources/978-1-316-87051-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-316-87051-8"). - Chang, J. H. (1967). "The Indian Summer Monsoon". *[Geographical Review](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_Review "Geographical Review")*. **57** (3). [American Geographical Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Geographical_Society "American Geographical Society"), Wiley: 373–396. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[1967GeoRv..57..373C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967GeoRv..57..373C). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.2307/212640](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F212640). [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier) "JSTOR (identifier)") [212640](https://www.jstor.org/stable/212640). - [*Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 with Amendments Made in 1988*](https://web.archive.org/web/20110721163118/https://forest.and.nic.in/fca1980.pdf) (PDF). Department of Environment and Forests, Government of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 1988. Archived from [the original](https://forest.and.nic.in/fca1980.pdf) (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 25 July 2011. - Dikshit, K. R.; [Schwartzberg, Joseph E.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_E._Schwartzberg "Joseph E. Schwartzberg") (2023). ["India: Land"](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India). *[Encyclopædia Britannica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopædia_Britannica "Encyclopædia Britannica")*. pp. 1–29. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150508084916/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India) from the original on 8 May 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2022. - [Duff, D.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Duff_(geologist_and_author) "Donald Duff (geologist and author)") (1993). [*Holmes Principles of Physical Geology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=E6vknq9SfIIC&pg=PT353) (4th ed.). [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-7487-4381-0](Special:BookSources/978-0-7487-4381-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7487-4381-0"). - Kaul, R. N. (1970). "The Indian Subcontinent: Indo-Pakistan". In Kaul, R. N. (ed.). *Afforestation in Arid Zones*. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk, N.V., Publishers. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-94-010-3352-7](Special:BookSources/978-94-010-3352-7 "Special:BookSources/978-94-010-3352-7"). - Kumar, V. Sanil; Pathak, K. C.; Pednekar, P.; Raju, N. S. N.; Gowthaman, R. (2006). ["Coastal processes along the Indian coastline"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090908141613/https://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/350/1/Curr_Sci_91_530.pdf) (PDF). *[Current Science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_Science "Current Science")*. **91** (4): 530–536. Archived from [the original](https://drs.nio.org/drs/bitstream/2264/350/1/Curr_Sci_91_530.pdf) (PDF) on 8 September 2009. - Mcgrail, Sean; Blue, Lucy; Kentley, Eric; Palmer, Colin (2003). [*Boats of South Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=v1eBAgAAQBAJ). [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-134-43130-4](Special:BookSources/978-1-134-43130-4 "Special:BookSources/978-1-134-43130-4"). - Molnar, Peter (2015). *Plate Tectonics: A Very Short Introduction*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-872826-9](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872826-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872826-9"). - *India Yearbook 2007*. New Delhi: Publications Division, [Ministry of Information and Broadcasting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Information_and_Broadcasting_(India) "Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)"), [Government of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India"). 2007. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-81-230-1423-4](Special:BookSources/978-81-230-1423-4 "Special:BookSources/978-81-230-1423-4"). - Posey, C. A. (1994). [*The Living Earth Book of Wind and Weather*](https://archive.org/details/livingearthbooko00pose). [Reader's Digest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reader's_Digest_Association "Reader's Digest Association"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-89577-625-9](Special:BookSources/978-0-89577-625-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-89577-625-9"). - Prakash, B.; Kumar, S.; Rao, M. S.; Giri, S. C. (2000). ["Holocene Tectonic Movements and Stress Field in the Western Gangetic Plains"](https://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf) (PDF). *[Current Science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_Science "Current Science")*. **79** (4): 438–449. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110504075319/https://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 4 May 2011. Retrieved 7 February 2022. - Prasad, Ishwar (1974). "The Ecology of Vertebrates of the Indian Desert". In Mani, M. S. (ed.). *Ecology and Biogeography in India*. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk bv Publishers. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-94-010-2333-7](Special:BookSources/978-94-010-2333-7 "Special:BookSources/978-94-010-2333-7"). ### Biodiversity - Basak, R. K. (1983). [*Botanical Survey of India: Account of Its Establishment, Development, and Activities*](https://books.google.com/books?id=yXAVcgAACAAJ). India. [Department of Environment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Environment "Department of Environment"). Retrieved 20 July 2011. - Crame, J. A.; Owen, A. W. (2002). [*Palaeobiogeography and Biodiversity Change: The Ordovician and Mesozoic–Cenozoic Radiations*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YswVy5YolYsC&pg=PA142). Geological Society Special Publication. [Geological Society of London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_Society_of_London "Geological Society of London"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-86239-106-2](Special:BookSources/978-1-86239-106-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-86239-106-2"). Retrieved 8 December 2011. - Karanth, K. Ullas; Gopal, Rajesh (2005). "An ecology-based policy framework for human-tiger coexistence in India". In Rosie Woodroffe; Simon Thirgood; Alan Rabinowitz (eds.). [*People and Wildlife, Conflict Or Co-existence?*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6vNzRzcjntAC). [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-53203-7](Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53203-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53203-7"). - Karanth, K. P. (2006). ["Out-of-India Gondwanan Origin of Some Tropical Asian Biota"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190411223533/https://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf) (PDF). *[Current Science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_Science "Current Science")*. **90** (6): 789–792. Archived from [the original](https://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf) (PDF) on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2011. - Tritsch, M. F. (2001). [*Wildlife of India*](https://archive.org/details/wildlifeofindia0000trit). London: [HarperCollins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins "HarperCollins"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-00-711062-9](Special:BookSources/978-0-00-711062-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-00-711062-9"). - World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1994). Groombridge, Brian (ed.). [*1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dyy0HilL9ecC&pg=PR4). 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[*Politics in India, 1991–1992*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pf5HAAAAMAAJ). Shipra. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-81-85402-17-8](Special:BookSources/978-81-85402-17-8 "Special:BookSources/978-81-85402-17-8"). Retrieved 20 July 2011. - Burnell, P. J.; Calvert, P. (1999). [*The Resilience of Democracy: Persistent Practice, Durable Idea*](https://books.google.com/books?id=hv6TkML5_HAC&pg=PA271). [Taylor & Francis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_&_Francis "Taylor & Francis"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-7146-8026-2](Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-8026-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-8026-2"). Retrieved 20 July 2011. - India, Press Trust of (16 May 2009). 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["Canada Signs Nuclear Deal with India"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170525115702/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/g8-g20/news/canada-signs-nuclear-deal-with-india/article1620801/). *[The Globe and Mail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail "The Globe and Mail")*. Archived from [the original](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/g8-g20/news/canada-signs-nuclear-deal-with-india/article1620801/) on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 13 May 2011. - ["EU-India Strategic Partnership"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110503194700/https://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/external_relations/relations_with_third_countries/asia/r14100_en.htm). *Europa: Summaries of EU Legislation*. [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union"). 8 April 2008. Archived from [the original](https://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/external_relations/relations_with_third_countries/asia/r14100_en.htm) on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 14 January 2011. - Gilbert, M. (2002). 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["India Stumbles in Rush to a Free Market Economy"](https://www.nytimes.com/1992/08/15/world/india-stumbles-in-rush-to-a-free-market-economy.html). *[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110208134134/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/08/15/world/india-stumbles-in-rush-to-a-free-market-economy.html) from the original on 8 February 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011. - Nayak, P. B.; Goldar, B.; Agrawal, P. (2010). [*India's Economy and Growth: Essays in Honour of V. K. R. V. Rao*](https://books.google.com/books?id=N1Ho2SGXUHwC). [SAGE Publications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGE_Publishing "SAGE Publishing"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-81-321-0452-0](Special:BookSources/978-81-321-0452-0 "Special:BookSources/978-81-321-0452-0").} - Yep, E. (27 September 2011). ["ReNew Wind Power Gets $201 Million Goldman Investment"](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204422404576595972728958728). *[The Wall Street Journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal "The Wall Street Journal")*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210324131416/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204422404576595972728958728) from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 27 September 2011. - ["India Second Fastest Growing Auto Market After China"](https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/article988689.ece). *[Business Line](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Line "Business Line")*. 10 April 2010. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131230232110/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/article988689.ece) from the original on 30 December 2013. 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["Migration and Urbanisation: Retrospect and Prospects"](https://books.google.com/books?id=bqU9T5c0wlYC). In Dyson, T.; Casses, R.; Visaria, L. (eds.). [*Twenty-First Century India: Population, Economy, Human Development, and the Environment*](https://archive.org/details/twentyfirstcentu0000unse_v0c4). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-928382-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928382-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928382-8"). - Dyson, Tim (2018). [*A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-882905-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-882905-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-882905-8"). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240925120221/https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ) from the original on 25 September 2024. Retrieved 29 July 2019. - Fisher, Michael H. (2018). [*An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ). Cambridge and New York: [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1017/9781316276044](https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781316276044). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-107-11162-2](Special:BookSources/978-1-107-11162-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-107-11162-2"). 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[Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250310035328/https://books.google.com/books?id=z7zdDFTzNr0C) from the original on 10 March 2025. Retrieved 1 December 2025. - [*Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L*](https://web.archive.org/web/20141001005409/https://www.rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=Mzc%3D). [Ministry of Home Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Home_Affairs_(India) "Ministry of Home Affairs (India)"), [Government of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India"). 27 April 1960. Archived from [the original](https://rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=Mzc%3d) on 1 October 2014. Retrieved 13 May 2011. - ["Census Data 2001"](https://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/National_Summary/National_Summary_DataPage.aspx). *[Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registrar_General_and_Census_Commissioner_of_India "Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India")*. [Ministry of Home Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Home_Affairs_(India) "Ministry of Home Affairs (India)"), [Government of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India"). 2010–2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110812094911/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/National_Summary/National_Summary_DataPage.aspx) from the original on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011. ### Culture - Asher, Catherine B. (1992). *Architecture of Mughal India*. New Cambridge History of India series. Cambridge; New York: [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1017/CHOL9780521267281](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521267281). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-26728-1](Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26728-1 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26728-1"). - Béteille, André (2002). ["Caste"](https://books.google.com/books?id=o1VpdrbH3BUC&pg=PA136). In Barnard, Alan; Spencer, Jonathan (eds.). *Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology*. New York; London: [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-415-28558-2](Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28558-2 "Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28558-2"). - Binmore, K. G. (2007). [*Playing for Real: A Text on Game Theory*](https://books.google.com/books?id=eY0YhSk9ujsC&pg=PA98). [Oxford University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-19-530057-4](Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530057-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530057-4"). - Blurton, T. Richard (1993). [*Hindu Art*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&q=Hindu+Art,+1994,+British+Museum+Press). [Harvard University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Press "Harvard University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-674-39189-5](Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39189-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39189-5"). - [Bourbaki, Nicolas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Bourbaki "Nicolas Bourbaki") (1998). [*Elements of the History of Mathematics*](https://archive.org/details/elementsofhistor0000bour). Berlin, Heidelberg, and New York: [Springer-Verlag](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag "Springer-Verlag"), 301 pages. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-3-540-64767-6](Special:BookSources/978-3-540-64767-6 "Special:BookSources/978-3-540-64767-6"). - [Craven, Roy C](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_C._Craven "Roy C. Craven") (1997). *Indian art: a concise history*. New York City: [Thames & Hudson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames_&_Hudson "Thames & Hudson"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-500-20302-6](Special:BookSources/978-0-500-20302-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-500-20302-6"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier) "OCLC (identifier)") [37895110](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37895110). - Cullen-Dupont, K. (July 2009). [*Human Trafficking*](https://books.google.com/books?id=B2GeSNXy5CoC). [Infobase Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infobase_Publishing "Infobase Publishing"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-8160-7545-4](Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7545-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7545-4"). - Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004). ["Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature"](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-2321-9_7). In [Chemla, Karine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karine_Chemla "Karine Chemla"); Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. (eds.). *History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science)*. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 254 pages, pp. 137–157. pp. 360–375. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1007/1-4020-2321-9\_7](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-2321-9_7). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4020-2320-0](Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2320-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2320-0").. - Harle, James C. (1994). [*The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC). [Yale University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University_Press "Yale University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-300-06217-5](Special:BookSources/978-0-300-06217-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-300-06217-5"). - Hayashi, Takao (2005). "Indian Mathematics". In Flood, Gavin (ed.). *The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism*. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 616 pages, pp. 360–375. pp. 360–375. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-4051-3251-0](Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3251-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3251-0").. - Hayashi, Takao (1995). *The Bakhshali Manuscript, An ancient Indian mathematical treatise*. Groningen: Egbert Forsten, 596 pages. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-90-6980-087-5](Special:BookSources/978-90-6980-087-5 "Special:BookSources/978-90-6980-087-5").. - [Ifrah, Georges](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Ifrah "Georges Ifrah") (2000). *A Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to Computers*. New York: Wiley. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-471-39340-5](Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39340-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39340-5"). - Jones, G.; Ramdas, K. (2005). [*(Un)tying the Knot: Ideal and Reality in Asian Marriage*](https://books.google.com/books?id=IttiQ3QdJ6YC). [National University of Singapore Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_University_of_Singapore_Press "National University of Singapore Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-981-05-1428-0](Special:BookSources/978-981-05-1428-0 "Special:BookSources/978-981-05-1428-0"). - Kiple, K. F.; Ornelas, K. C., eds. (2000). *The Cambridge World History of Food*. Vol. 2. Cambridge and New York: [Cambridge University Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-521-40215-6](Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40215-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40215-6"). - Kuiper, K., ed. (2010). [*The Culture of India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LiqloV4JnNUC). [Britannica Educational Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannica_Educational_Publishing "Britannica Educational Publishing"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-61530-203-1](Special:BookSources/978-1-61530-203-1 "Special:BookSources/978-1-61530-203-1"). Retrieved 24 July 2011. - Makar, E. M. (2007). [*An American's Guide to Doing Business in India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ujYmdNVIr7QC). Adams. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-59869-211-2](Special:BookSources/978-1-59869-211-2 "Special:BookSources/978-1-59869-211-2"). - Medora, N. (2003). "Mate Selection in Contemporary India: Love Marriages Versus Arranged Marriages". In Hamon, R. R.; Ingoldsby, B. B. (eds.). *Mate Selection Across Cultures*. [SAGE Publications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGE_Publishing "SAGE Publishing"). pp. 209–230. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-7619-2592-7](Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2592-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2592-7"). - Michell, George (2000). [*Hindu Art and Architecture*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YVl2QgAACAAJ). [Thames & Hudson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames_&_Hudson "Thames & Hudson"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-500-20337-8](Special:BookSources/978-0-500-20337-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-500-20337-8"). - [Pingree, David](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Pingree "David Pingree") (2003). "The logic of non-Western science: mathematical discoveries in medieval India". *Daedalus*. **132** (4): 45–54. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1162/001152603771338779](https://doi.org/10.1162%2F001152603771338779).. - [Plofker, K.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Plofker "Kim Plofker") (2007). "Mathematics of India". In [Katz, Victor J.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_J._Katz "Victor J. Katz") (ed.). *The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook*. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 385–514. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-691-11485-9](Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11485-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11485-9").. - Plofker, Kim (2009). [*Mathematics in India: 500 BCE–1800 CE*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_in_India_(book) "Mathematics in India (book)"). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-691-12067-6](Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12067-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12067-6").. - Roger, Delphine. "[The Middle East and South Asia (in Chapter: History and Culture of Food and Drink in Asia)](https://books.google.com/books?id=Vr2qnK_QOuAC&pg=PA1140)". In [Kiple & Ornelas (2000)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#CITEREFKipleOrnelas2000), pp. 1140–1150. - Rowland, Benjamin (1970). [*The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6L2fAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Art+and+Architecture+of+India:+Buddhist,+Hindu,+Jain). [Penguin Books](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_Books "Penguin Books"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-14-056102-9](Special:BookSources/978-0-14-056102-9 "Special:BookSources/978-0-14-056102-9"). - Stillwell, John (2004). *Mathematics and its History*. Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics (2 ed.). Springer, Berlin and New York, 568 pages. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1007/978-1-4684-9281-1](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4684-9281-1). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-387-95336-6](Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95336-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95336-6").. - Tarlo, E. (1996). [*Clothing Matters: Dress and Identity in India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ByoTXhXCuyAC). [University of Chicago Press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press "University of Chicago Press"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-226-78976-7](Special:BookSources/978-0-226-78976-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-226-78976-7"). Retrieved 24 July 2011. - [*Anand Crowned World Champion*](https://www.rediff.com/sports/2008/oct/29anand.htm). [Rediff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rediff.com "Rediff.com"). 29 October 2008. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171010090527/http://www.rediff.com/sports/2008/oct/29anand.htm) from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2008. ## External links **India** at Wikipedia's [sister projects](Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects "Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects") - [![Wiktionary logo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png)](File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg)[Definitions](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/India "wikt:Special:Search/India") from Wiktionary - [![Wikimedia Commons logo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png)](File:Commons-logo.svg)[Media](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/India "c:India") from Commons - ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/40px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)[Quotations](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/India "q:India") from Wikiquote - [![Wikisource logo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/40px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png)](File:Wikisource-logo.svg)[Texts](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/India "s:Special:Search/India") from Wikisource - [![Wikibooks logo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png)](File:Wikibooks-logo.svg)[Textbooks](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/India "b:Special:Search/India") from Wikibooks - [![Wikiversity logo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png)](File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg)[Resources](https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/India "v:Special:Search/India") from Wikiversity - [![Wikivoyage logo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png)](File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg)[Travel information](https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/India "voy:India") from Wikivoyage Category: ./Category:Pages\_using\_Sister\_project\_links\_with\_hidden\_wikidata#voy Category: ./Category:Pages\_using\_Sister\_project\_links\_with\_default\_search#v **Government** - [Official website of the Government of India](https://www.india.gov.in/) - [Government of India Web Directory](https://goidirectory.nic.in/index.php) **General information** - [India](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210111023536/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/) 11 January 2021 at the [Wayback Machine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine") Category: ./Category:Webarchive\_template\_wayback\_links . *[The World Factbook](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Factbook "The World Factbook")*. [Central Intelligence Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency "Central Intelligence Agency"). - [India](http://ucblibraries.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?ho=t&l=en&q=India) web resources provided by GovPubs at the [University of Colorado Boulder Libraries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Colorado_Boulder_Libraries "University of Colorado Boulder Libraries") - [India](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12557384) from [BBC News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News "BBC News") - ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Internet-web-browser.svg/20px-Internet-web-browser.svg.png) [Wikimedia Atlas of India](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas%20of%20India "commons:Atlas of India") - ![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Openstreetmap_logo.svg/20px-Openstreetmap_logo.svg.png) Geographic data related to [India](https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/304716) at [OpenStreetMap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenStreetMap "OpenStreetMap") - [Key Development Forecasts for India](https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=IN) from [International Futures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Futures "International Futures") | - [v](Template:India_topics "Template:India topics") - [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:India_topics "Template talk:India topics") - [e](Special:EditPage/Template:India_topics "Special:EditPage/Template:India topics") [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India) [topics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_India "Outline of India") | | | --- | --- | | | [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India "History of India") | | | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | Overviews | - [Timeline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history "Timeline of Indian history") - [Years](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_years_in_India "List of years in India") - [Astronomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_astronomy "Indian astronomy") - [Clothing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_clothing_in_the_Indian_subcontinent "History of clothing in the Indian subcontinent") - [Coinage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coinage_of_India "Coinage of India") - [Economics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_India "Economic history of India") - [LGBTQ](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_India "LGBTQ history in India") - [Linguistics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_history_of_India "Linguistic history of India") - [Maritime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_maritime_history "Indian maritime history") - [Mathematics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_mathematics "Indian mathematics") - [Metallurgy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent "History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent") - [Military](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_India "Military history of India") - [Paper currency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paper_currency_in_Indian_subcontinent "History of paper currency in Indian subcontinent") - [Postal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_India "Postage stamps and postal history of India") - [Science and technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_on_the_Indian_subcontinent "History of science and technology on the Indian subcontinent") | | [Ancient](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_history "Ancient history") | - [Stone Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age "South Asian Stone Age") - [Indus Valley Civilisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation "Indus Valley Civilisation") - [Vedic period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_period "Vedic period") - [Mahajanapadas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajanapadas "Mahajanapadas") - [Mauryas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya_Empire "Maurya Empire") - [Indo-Greek Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom "Indo-Greek Kingdom") - [Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley "Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley") - [Indo-Parthian kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Parthian_kingdom "Indo-Parthian kingdom") - [Kushan Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushan_Empire "Kushan Empire") - [Alchon Huns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchon_Huns "Alchon Huns") - [Seleucid–Mauryan war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid–Mauryan_war "Seleucid–Mauryan war") | | Middle Kingdoms | - [Middle kingdoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India "Middle kingdoms of India") - [Chola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_dynasty "Chola dynasty") | | [Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") | - [Medieval India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_India "Medieval India") - [Hoysala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoysala_Empire "Hoysala Empire") - [Pala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pala_Empire "Pala Empire") - [Kakatiya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty "Kakatiya dynasty") - [Delhi Sultanate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate "Delhi Sultanate") - [Vijayanagara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire "Vijayanagara Empire") | | [Early Modern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Modern "Early Modern") | - [Mughals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") - [Marathas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maratha_Empire "Maratha Empire") - [European trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company "East India Company") - [Bengal War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_War "Bengal War") | | [Late modern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_modern "Late modern") | - [Colonial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_India "Colonial India") - [Princely state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princely_state "Princely state") - [East India Company](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company "East India Company") - [Plassey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey "Battle of Plassey") - [1857 rebellion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857 "Indian Rebellion of 1857") - [British Raj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj "British Raj") - [Railways](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India#History "Rail transport in India") - [Economy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_India_under_the_British_Raj "Economy of India under the British Raj") - [Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Indian_Army "British Indian Army") - [Commander-in-Chief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander-in-Chief,_India "Commander-in-Chief, India") - [Zamindari](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamindar#British_era "Zamindar") - [Bengal Renaissance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_Renaissance "Bengal Renaissance") - [Political reforms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Councils_Act_1909 "Indian Councils Act 1909") - [Partition of Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905) "Partition of Bengal (1905)") - [Independence movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_independence_movement "Indian independence movement") - [1943 famine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943 "Bengal famine of 1943") - [World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_in_World_War_II "India in World War II") - [Partition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_India "Partition of India") | | Republic | - [Integration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_integration_of_India "Political integration of India") - [Non-Aligned Movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_and_the_Non-Aligned_Movement "India and the Non-Aligned Movement") - [Five-Year Plans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-Year_Plans_of_India "Five-Year Plans of India") - [Sino-Indian War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Indian_War "Sino-Indian War") - [Indo-Pakistani wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_wars_and_conflicts "Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts") - [Green Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India "Green Revolution in India") - [White Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Flood "Operation Flood") - [Naxal Insurgency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naxalite "Naxalite") - [Smiling Buddha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiling_Buddha "Smiling Buddha") - [Space programme](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation "Indian Space Research Organisation") - [The Emergency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emergency_(India) "The Emergency (India)") - [Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Peace_Keeping_Force "Indian Peace Keeping Force") | | Contemporary | - [History of India (1947–present)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India_(1947–present) "History of India (1947–present)") - [Economic liberalisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India "Economic liberalisation in India") - [Pokhran-II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhran-II "Pokhran-II") - [COVID-19 pandemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "COVID-19 pandemic in India") | | | | | | | [Geography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_India "Geography of India") | | | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | [Geology](Category:Geology_of_India "Category:Geology of India") | - [Fossil Parks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_Parks_of_India "Fossil Parks of India") - [Geology of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_India "Geology of India") - [Indian Plate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Plate "Indian Plate") | | Heritage | - [National Geological Monuments of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geological_Monuments_of_India "National Geological Monuments of India") - [Sacred groves of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_groves_of_India "Sacred groves of India") - [Sacred mountains of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_mountains#India "Sacred mountains") - [Sacred rivers of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River#Sacred "River") - [Stones of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stones_of_India "Stones of India") | | [Environment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_of_India "Environment of India") | - [Biogeographic classification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeographic_classification_of_India "Biogeographic classification of India") - [Biosphere reserves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere_reserves_of_India "Biosphere reserves of India") - [Climate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_India "Climate of India") - [Climate change](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_India "Climate change in India") - [Earthquakes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_India "List of earthquakes in India") - [Ecoregions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_India "List of ecoregions in India") - [Environmental issues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_India "Environmental issues in India") - [Fauna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna_of_India "Fauna of India") - [Forests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forests_in_India "List of forests in India") - [Flora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flora_of_India "Flora of India") - [Geology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_India "Geology of India") - [National parks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India "List of national parks of India") - [Protected areas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_areas_of_India "Protected areas of India") - [Wildlife](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_of_India "Wildlife of India") - [sanctuaries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wildlife_sanctuaries_of_India "List of wildlife sanctuaries of India") | | Landforms | - [Beaches](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_India "List of beaches in India") - [Canals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_canals_in_India "List of canals in India") - [Coasts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_India "Coastal India") - [Desert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thar_Desert "Thar Desert") - [Exclusive economic zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone_of_India "Exclusive economic zone of India") - [Extreme points](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_India "List of extreme points of India") - [Glaciers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glaciers_of_India "List of glaciers of India") - [Highest point by states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_and_union_territories_by_highest_point "List of Indian states and union territories by highest point") - [Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_of_India "List of islands of India") - [Lakes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_India "List of lakes of India") - [Mountains](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_India "List of mountains in India") - [Mountain passes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mountain_passes_of_India "List of mountain passes of India") - Plains - [Indo-Gangetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Gangetic_Plain "Indo-Gangetic Plain") - [Eastern coastal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Coastal_Plains "Eastern Coastal Plains") - [Western coastal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Coastal_Plains "Western Coastal Plains") - [Rivers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_India "List of rivers of India") - [Valleys](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_valleys_in_India "List of valleys in India") - [Volcanoes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_India "List of volcanoes in India") - [Waterfalls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_of_India "List of waterfalls of India") | | [Regions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India "Administrative divisions of India") | - [Central](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_India "Central India") - [East](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India "East India") - [North](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_India "North India") - [Northwest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_India "Northwest India") - [Northeast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_India "Northeast India") - [South](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_India "South India") - [Southwest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwest_India "Southwest India") - [Southeast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_India "Southeast India") - [West](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_India "Western India") | | [Subdivisions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_India "Administrative divisions of India") | - [Autonomous administrative divisions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_divisions_of_India "Autonomous administrative divisions of India") - [Borders](Template:Borders_of_India "Template:Borders of India") - [Towns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_in_India_by_population "List of towns in India by population") - [Cities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_in_India_by_population "List of cities in India by population") - [Districts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_districts_in_India "List of districts in India") - [Municipalities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_governance_in_India "Municipal governance in India") - [States and union territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India "States and union territories of India") | | See also | - [National monuments of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monuments_of_National_Importance_of_India "Monuments of National Importance of India") - [National parks of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_India "List of national parks of India") - [Nature worship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_worship "Nature worship") in [Indian-origin religions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_religions "Indian religions") - [World Heritage Sites in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites_in_India "World Heritage Sites in India") - [Culture of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_India "Culture of India") - [History of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India "History of India") - [Tourism in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_in_India "Tourism in India") | | | | | | | [Politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_India "Politics of India") | | | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | [Government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India "Government of India") | - [Agencies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agencies_of_the_government_of_India "List of agencies of the government of India") - [Energy policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_policy_of_India "Energy policy of India") - [Foreign relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_India "Foreign relations of India") - [Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_India "Parliament of India") - [Lok Sabha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lok_Sabha "Lok Sabha") - [Rajya Sabha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajya_Sabha "Rajya Sabha") - [President](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_India "President of India") - [Vice President](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_India "Vice President of India") - [Prime Minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India "Prime Minister of India") - [Union Council of Ministers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Council_of_Ministers "Union Council of Ministers") - [Civil Services](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Services_of_India "Civil Services of India") - [Cabinet Secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_Secretary_(India) "Cabinet Secretary (India)") - [State governments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_governments_of_India "State governments of India") - [State legislative assemblies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_legislative_assemblies_of_India "State legislative assemblies of India") - [State legislative councils](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_legislative_councils_of_India "State legislative councils of India") - [Governors, Lieutenant Governors and Administrators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_(India) "Governor (India)") - [Chief Ministers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_minister_(India) "Chief minister (India)") - [Chief Secretaries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_secretary_(India) "Chief secretary (India)") | | [Law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_India "Law of India") | | | | | --- | --- | | - [Constitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_India "Constitution of India") - [Penal Code](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Penal_Code "Indian Penal Code") - [Fundamental rights, principles and duties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_Rights,_Directive_Principles_and_Fundamental_Duties_of_India "Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India") - [Human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_India "Human rights in India") - [Supreme Court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_India "Supreme Court of India") - [Chief Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_India "Chief Justice of India") - [High Courts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_courts_of_India "High courts of India") - [District Courts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_courts_of_India "District courts of India") | | | [Enforcement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_India "Law enforcement in India") | | | | | --- | --- | | Federal | - [Border Security Force (BSF)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Security_Force "Border Security Force") - [Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Industrial_Security_Force "Central Industrial Security Force") - [Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Reserve_Police_Force "Central Reserve Police Force") - [Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Tibetan_Border_Police "Indo-Tibetan Border Police") - [National Security Guard (NSG)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Guard "National Security Guard") - [Railway Protection Force (RPF)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_Protection_Force "Railway Protection Force") - [Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sashastra_Seema_Bal "Sashastra Seema Bal") - [Special Protection Group (SPG)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Protection_Group "Special Protection Group") | | [Intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_intelligence_agencies "List of Indian intelligence agencies") | - [Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Police_Research_and_Development "Bureau of Police Research and Development") - [Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Bureau_of_Investigation "Central Bureau of Investigation") - [Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directorate_of_Revenue_Intelligence "Directorate of Revenue Intelligence") - [Enforcement Directorate (ED)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enforcement_Directorate "Enforcement Directorate") - [Intelligence Bureau (IB)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_Bureau_(India) "Intelligence Bureau (India)") - [Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Council_(India) "National Security Council (India)") - [Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcotics_Control_Bureau "Narcotics Control Bureau") - [National Investigation Agency (NIA)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Investigation_Agency "National Investigation Agency") - [Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_Analysis_Wing "Research and Analysis Wing") | | | | [Military](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Armed_Forces "Indian Armed Forces") | - [Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Army "Indian Army") - [Navy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Navy "Indian Navy") - [Air Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Air_Force "Indian Air Force") | | [Politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_India "Politics of India") | - [Censorship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship_in_India "Censorship in India") - [Internet censorship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_censorship_in_India "Internet censorship in India") - [Citizenship](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_nationality_law "Indian nationality law") - [Elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections_in_India "Elections in India") - [Democracy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_in_India "Democracy in India") - [Political parties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India "List of political parties in India") - [Reservations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservation_in_India "Reservation in India") - [Scandals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scandals_in_India "List of scandals in India") - [Scheduled groups](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_Castes_and_Scheduled_Tribes "Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes") - [Women in politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women's_political_participation_in_India "Women's political participation in India") | | | | | | | [Economy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_India "Economy of India") | | | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | [Companies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_companies_of_India "List of companies of India") | - [BSE SENSEX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSE_SENSEX "BSE SENSEX") - [NIFTY 50](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIFTY_50 "NIFTY 50") - [NIFTY Next 50](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIFTY_Next_50 "NIFTY Next 50") - [NIFTY 500](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIFTY_500 "NIFTY 500") - [GIFT Nifty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIFT_Nifty "GIFT Nifty") | | Governance | - [Ministry of Finance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_(India) "Ministry of Finance (India)") - [Finance ministers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_of_Finance_(India) "Minister of Finance (India)") - [Ministry of Commerce and Industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_and_Industry_(India) "Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)") - [Finance Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance_Commission "Finance Commission") - [Economic Advisory Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_Advisory_Council "Economic Advisory Council") - [Central Statistical Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Statistics_Office_(India) "Central Statistics Office (India)") - [Securities and Exchange Board of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Board_of_India "Securities and Exchange Board of India") - [Enforcement Directorate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enforcement_Directorate "Enforcement Directorate") - [External debt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_debt_of_India "External debt of India") - [Foreign trade](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_India "Foreign trade of India") - [Foreign direct investment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_India "Foreign direct investment in India") - [Foreign exchange reserves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign-exchange_reserves_of_India "Foreign-exchange reserves of India") - [Remittances](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remittances_to_India "Remittances to India") - [Taxation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation_in_India "Taxation in India") - [Subsidies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidies_in_India "Subsidies in India") - [Industrial licensing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_licensing_in_India "Industrial licensing in India") - [Voluntary guidelines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Voluntary_Guidelines_on_Social,_Environmental_and_Economic_Responsibilities_of_Business "National Voluntary Guidelines on Social, Environmental and Economic Responsibilities of Business") - [NITI Aayog](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NITI_Aayog "NITI Aayog") - [Make in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_in_India "Make in India") - [Atmanirbhar Bharat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmanirbhar_Bharat "Atmanirbhar Bharat") | | Currency | - [Indian rupee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupee "Indian rupee") - [Sign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rupee_sign "Indian rupee sign") - [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_rupee "History of the rupee") - [Historical Forex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate_history_of_the_Indian_rupee "Exchange rate history of the Indian rupee") - [Digital rupee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_rupee "Digital rupee") - [Coinage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coinage_of_India "Coinage of India") - [Paisa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_paisa "Indian paisa") - [Reserve Bank of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India "Reserve Bank of India") - [Governor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_governors_of_the_Reserve_Bank_of_India "List of governors of the Reserve Bank of India") - [Mint](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Government_Mint "India Government Mint") - [Inflation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation_in_India "Inflation in India") | | Financial services | - [Banking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banking_in_India "Banking in India") - [Insurance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_in_India "Insurance in India") - [Multi Commodity Exchange](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi_Commodity_Exchange "Multi Commodity Exchange") - [Bullion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gold_(Control)_Act,_1968 "The Gold (Control) Act, 1968") - [BSE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombay_Stock_Exchange "Bombay Stock Exchange") - [NSE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Stock_Exchange_of_India "National Stock Exchange of India") - [India INX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_International_Exchange "India International Exchange") | | [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_India "Economic history of India") | - [COVID-19 impact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_in_India "Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India") - [Economic development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_development_in_India "Economic development in India") - [Liberalisation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_liberalisation_in_India "Economic liberalisation in India") - [Licence Raj](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licence_Raj "Licence Raj") - [Green revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Revolution_in_India "Green Revolution in India") - [Government initiatives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schemes_of_the_government_of_India "List of schemes of the government of India") - [Numbering system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_numbering_system "Indian numbering system") | | People | - [By net worth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indians_by_net_worth "List of Indians by net worth") - [Demography](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_India "Demographics of India") - [Income](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income_in_India "Income in India") - [Poverty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_in_India "Poverty in India") - [Labour law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_labour_law "Indian labour law") - [Pensions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensions_in_India "Pensions in India") - [EPFO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employees'_Provident_Fund_Organisation "Employees' Provident Fund Organisation") - [NPS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Pension_Scheme "National Pension Scheme") - [PPF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Provident_Fund_(India) "Public Provident Fund (India)") | | States | - [Andhra Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Andhra_Pradesh "Economy of Andhra Pradesh") - [Assam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Assam "Economy of Assam") - [Bihar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Bihar "Economy of Bihar") - [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Delhi "Economy of Delhi") - [Goa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Goa "Economy of Goa") - [Gujarat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Gujarat "Economy of Gujarat") - [Haryana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Haryana "Economy of Haryana") - [Himachal Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Himachal_Pradesh "Economy of Himachal Pradesh") - [Jammu and Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir "Economy of Jammu and Kashmir") - [Jharkhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Jharkhand "Economy of Jharkhand") - [Karnataka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Karnataka "Economy of Karnataka") - [Kerala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Kerala "Economy of Kerala") - [Ladakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Ladakh "Economy of Ladakh") - [Madhya Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Madhya_Pradesh "Economy of Madhya Pradesh") - [Maharashtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Maharashtra "Economy of Maharashtra") - [Mizoram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Mizoram "Economy of Mizoram") - [Odisha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Odisha "Economy of Odisha") - [Punjab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Punjab,_India "Economy of Punjab, India") - [Rajasthan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Rajasthan "Economy of Rajasthan") - [Tamil Nadu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Tamil_Nadu "Economy of Tamil Nadu") - [Telangana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Telangana "Economy of Telangana") - [Uttarakhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Uttarakhand "Economy of Uttarakhand") - [Uttar Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Uttar_Pradesh "Economy of Uttar Pradesh") - [West Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_West_Bengal "Economy of West Bengal") | | Sectors | - [Agriculture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_India "Agriculture in India") - [Livestock](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandry_in_India "Animal husbandry in India") - [Fishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing_in_India "Fishing in India") - [Wheat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat_production_in_India "Wheat production in India") - [Automotive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_India "Automotive industry in India") - [Chemical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_industry_in_India "Chemical industry in India") - [Construction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_industry_of_India "Construction industry of India") - [Defence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_industry_of_India "Defence industry of India") - [Education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_India "Education in India") - [Energy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_in_India "Energy in India") - [Electricity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India "Electricity sector in India") - [Nuclear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India "Nuclear power in India") - [Oil and gas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_and_gas_industry_in_India "Oil and gas industry in India") - [Solar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_India "Solar power in India") - [Wind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power_in_India "Wind power in India") - [Electronics and semiconductor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics_and_semiconductor_manufacturing_industry_in_India "Electronics and semiconductor manufacturing industry in India") - [Entertainment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_industry_in_India "Entertainment industry in India") - [Forestry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestry_in_India "Forestry in India") - [Gambling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling_in_India "Gambling in India") - [Healthcare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_in_India "Healthcare in India") - [Hospitals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_India "List of hospitals in India") - [Information technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology_in_India "Information technology in India") - [Media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_of_India "Media of India") - [Cinema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_India "Cinema of India") - [FM Radio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcasting_in_India "FM broadcasting in India") - [Television](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_in_India "Television in India") - [Printing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_industry_in_India "Printing industry in India") - [Mining](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining_in_India "Mining in India") - [Coal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_in_India "Coal in India") - [Iron and Steel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India "Iron and steel industry in India") - [Pharmaceuticals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_India "Pharmaceutical industry in India") - [Pulp and paper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry_in_India "Pulp and paper industry in India") - [Retail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retailing_in_India "Retailing in India") - [Science and technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_India "Science and technology in India") - [Biotechnology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology_in_India "Biotechnology in India") - [Space](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_industry_of_India "Space industry of India") - [Telecommunications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India "Telecommunications in India") - [Textiles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_industry_in_India "Textile industry in India") - [Tourism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_in_India "Tourism in India") - [Transport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_India "Transport in India") - [Aviation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_in_India "Aviation in India") - [Civil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_India "Civil aviation in India") - [Ports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ports_in_India "List of ports in India") - [Rail](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India "Rail transport in India") - [Roads](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roads_in_India "Roads in India") - [Electricity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_electricity_organisations_in_India "List of electricity organisations in India") - [Water](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India "Water supply and sanitation in India") - [Power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_sector_in_India "Power sector in India") | | Regulator | - [IRDAI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_Regulatory_and_Development_Authority "Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority") - [RBI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_India "Reserve Bank of India") - [SEBI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEBI "SEBI") - [IBBI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Board_of_India "Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India") - [PFRDA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pension_Fund_Regulatory_and_Development_Authority "Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority") | | Other | - [NCLT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Company_Law_Tribunal "National Company Law Tribunal") - [NCLAT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Company_Law_Appellate_Tribunal "National Company Law Appellate Tribunal") - [BIFR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_for_Industrial_and_Financial_Reconstruction "Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction") - [IBBI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Board_of_India "Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India") - [IBC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolvency_and_Bankruptcy_Code,_2016 "Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016") - [SARFESI Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securitisation_and_Reconstruction_of_Financial_Assets_and_Enforcement_of_Security_Interest_Act,_2002 "Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act, 2002") - [Income Tax Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income-tax_Act,_1961 "Income-tax Act, 1961") - [Companies Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Companies_Act,_2013 "Companies Act, 2013") - [Banking Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banking_Regulation_Act,_1949 "Banking Regulation Act, 1949") - [Insurance Act](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_Act,_1938 "Insurance Act, 1938") - [FEMA](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Exchange_Management_Act,_1999 "Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999") - [Mumbai Consensus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai_Consensus "Mumbai Consensus") | | | | | | | - Society and [culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_India "Culture of India") | | | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | Society | - [Caste system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste_system_in_India "Caste system in India") - [Persecution of Dalits](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Dalits "Persecution of Dalits") - [Corruption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption_in_India "Corruption in India") - [Crime](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_in_India "Crime in India") - [Demographics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_India "Demographics of India") - [Indians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_people "Indian people") - [Indo-Aryans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples "Indo-Aryan peoples") - [Dravidians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_peoples "Dravidian peoples") - [Education](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_India "Education in India") - [Universities in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_universities_in_India "List of universities in India") - [Medical colleges in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_colleges_in_India "List of medical colleges in India") - [Law colleges in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_law_schools_in_India "List of law schools in India") - [Engineering colleges in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_education_in_India "Engineering education in India") - [Ethnic relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_relations_in_India "Ethnic relations in India") - [Health](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_in_India "Health in India") - [Languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_India "Languages of India") - [Life expectancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_states_by_life_expectancy_at_birth "List of Indian states by life expectancy at birth") - [Literacy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India "Literacy in India") - [Poverty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_in_India "Poverty in India") - [Prisons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisons_in_India "Prisons in India") - [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_India "Religion in India") - [Socio-economic issues](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_issue#India "Social issue") - [Standard of living](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_India "Standard of living in India") - [Water supply and sanitation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India "Water supply and sanitation in India") - [Women](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_India "Women in India") - [Sexuality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexuality_in_India "Sexuality in India") - [Youth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_in_India "Youth in India") | | [Culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_India "Culture of India") | - [Arts and entertainment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arts_and_entertainment_in_India "Arts and entertainment in India") - [Architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_India "Architecture of India") - [Blogging](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_blogosphere "Indian blogosphere") - [Cinema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_India "Cinema of India") - [Comics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_comics "Indian comics") - [Webcomics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webcomics_in_India "Webcomics in India") - [Cuisine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_cuisine "Indian cuisine") - [wine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_wine "Indian wine") - [Dance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_classical_dance "Indian classical dance") - [Date and time notation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_and_time_notation_in_India "Date and time notation in India") - [Dress](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothing_in_India "Clothing in India") - [Folklore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore_of_India "Folklore of India") - [Festivals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_India "List of festivals in India") - [Literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_literature "Indian literature") - [Media](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media_in_India "Mass media in India") - [television](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_in_India "Television in India") - [Martial arts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_martial_arts "Indian martial arts") - [Music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_India "Music of India") - [Painting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_painting "Indian painting") - [Physical culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_physical_culture "Indian physical culture") - [Public holidays](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_holidays_in_India "Public holidays in India") - [Sculpture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent "Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent") - [tallest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_tallest_statues_in_India "List of the tallest statues in India") - [Sport](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_India "Sport in India") - [Traditional](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_games_of_India "Traditional games of India") | | | | | | Related topics | | | --- | --- | | | - [v](Template:States_and_union_territories_of_India "Template:States and union territories of India") - [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:States_and_union_territories_of_India "Template talk:States and union territories of India") - [e](Special:EditPage/Template:States_and_union_territories_of_India "Special:EditPage/Template:States and union territories of India") [States and union territories of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India "States and union territories of India") | | | --- | --- | | [States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federated_state "Federated state") | - [Andhra Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh "Andhra Pradesh") - [Arunachal Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh "Arunachal Pradesh") - [Assam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam "Assam") - [Bihar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bihar "Bihar") - [Chhattisgarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhattisgarh "Chhattisgarh") - [Goa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goa "Goa") - [Gujarat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarat "Gujarat") - [Haryana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haryana "Haryana") - [Himachal Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh "Himachal Pradesh") - [Jharkhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jharkhand "Jharkhand") - [Karnataka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka") - [Keralam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keralam "Keralam") - [Madhya Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh "Madhya Pradesh") - [Maharashtra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra") - [Manipur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur "Manipur") - [Meghalaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meghalaya "Meghalaya") - [Mizoram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizoram "Mizoram") - [Nagaland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagaland "Nagaland") - [Odisha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odisha "Odisha") - [Punjab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab,_India "Punjab, India") - [Rajasthan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthan "Rajasthan") - [Sikkim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikkim "Sikkim") - [Tamil Nadu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu") - [Telangana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telangana "Telangana") - [Tripura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripura "Tripura") - [Uttar Pradesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh "Uttar Pradesh") - [Uttarakhand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttarakhand "Uttarakhand") - [West Bengal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengal "West Bengal") | | [Union territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_territory "Union territory") | - [Andaman and Nicobar Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islands "Andaman and Nicobar Islands") - [Chandigarh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh "Chandigarh") - [Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli_and_Daman_and_Diu "Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu") - [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi "Delhi") - [Jammu and Kashmir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory) "Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)") - [Ladakh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladakh "Ladakh") - [Lakshadweep](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshadweep "Lakshadweep") - [Puducherry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puducherry_(union_territory) "Puducherry (union territory)") | | - [Capitals in India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_state_and_union_territory_capitals_in_India "List of state and union territory capitals in India") - [Autonomous administrative divisions of India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_divisions_of_India "Autonomous administrative divisions of India") - [Proposed states and union territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_states_and_union_territories_of_India "Proposed states and union territories of India") - [Historical Regions](Category:Historical_regions_in_India "Category:Historical regions in India") - [British Provinces](Category:Presidencies_of_British_India "Category:Presidencies of British India") | | | - [v](Template:South_Asian_topics "Template:South Asian topics") - [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:South_Asian_topics "Template talk:South Asian topics") - [e](Special:EditPage/Template:South_Asian_topics "Special:EditPage/Template:South Asian topics") [South Asian topics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia") | | | --- | --- | | [Countries and regions](Category:Countries_in_South_Asia "Category:Countries in South Asia") | - [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") (sometimes not included) - [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh") - [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan "Bhutan") - [British Indian Ocean Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory "British Indian Ocean Territory") - [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India) - [Regions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regions_of_India "Regions of India") - [Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives "Maldives") - [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") - [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") - [Regions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_units_of_Pakistan "Administrative units of Pakistan") - [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka") - [South Asian regions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia#Regions "South Asia") - [Northern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_South_Asia "Northern South Asia") - [Eastern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_South_Asia "Eastern South Asia") - [Southern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_South_Asia "Southern South Asia") - [General geography](Template:GeoSouthAsia "Template:GeoSouthAsia") | | [Ethnic groups](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_Asia "Ethnic groups in South Asia") | - [Andamanese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andamanese_peoples "Andamanese peoples") - [Austroasiatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austroasiatic_peoples_of_South_Asia "Austroasiatic peoples of South Asia") - [Austronesian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_Asia#Austronesian_people "Ethnic groups in South Asia") - [Dravidian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_peoples "Dravidian peoples") - [Indo-Aryan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples "Indo-Aryan peoples") - [Iranic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_Asia#Iranic_people "Ethnic groups in South Asia") - [Nuristani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuristanis "Nuristanis") - [Tibeto-Burman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_Asia#Tibeto-Burman_people "Ethnic groups in South Asia") - [Turkic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_peoples "Turkic peoples") - Other groups - [Afro-Asians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Asians_in_South_Asia "Afro-Asians in South Asia") - [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_Asia#Chinese "Ethnic groups in South Asia") - [European and Eurasian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_Asia#European_and_Eurasian_people "Ethnic groups in South Asia") - [Semitic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_Asia#Semitic_people "Ethnic groups in South Asia") - [Diaspora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_diaspora "South Asian diaspora") | | [Culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_South_Asia "Culture of South Asia") | - [Architecture‎](Category:Architecture_in_South_Asia "Category:Architecture in South Asia") - [Art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_art "Indian art") - [Cinema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_cinema "South Asian cinema") - [Cuisine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_cuisine "South Asian cuisine") - [Cultural sphere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_India "Greater India") - [Fashion](Template:Clothing_in_South_Asia "Template:Clothing in South Asia") - [Languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia "Languages of South Asia") - [Literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_literature "South Asian literature") - [Music](Category:Music_of_South_Asia "Category:Music of South Asia") - [Mythology](Category:South_Asian_mythology "Category:South Asian mythology") - [Philosophy](Category:South_Asian_philosophy "Category:South Asian philosophy") - [Scripts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmic_scripts "Brahmic scripts") - [Surnames](Category:Surnames_of_South_Asian_origin "Category:Surnames of South Asian origin") | | [Environment](Category:Environment_of_South_Asia "Category:Environment of South Asia") | - [Monsoon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsoon_of_South_Asia "Monsoon of South Asia") - [Climate change](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_South_Asia "Climate change in South Asia") | | [Economy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_South_Asia "Economy of South Asia") and [Politics](Category:Politics_of_South_Asia "Category:Politics of South Asia") | - [Human rights in South Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_South_Asia "Human rights in South Asia") - [Religious nationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_nationalism "Religious nationalism") - [Hindu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindutva "Hindutva") - [Muslim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_nationalism_in_South_Asia "Muslim nationalism in South Asia") - [Sikh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalistan_movement "Khalistan movement") - [Stock exchanges](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Asian_stock_exchanges#Southern_Asia "List of Asian stock exchanges") - [Caste system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste#In_South_Asia "Caste") | | [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_South_Asia "History of South Asia") | - [Archaeology](Category:Archaeology_of_South_Asia "Category:Archaeology of South Asia") - [Archaeological cultures](Category:Archaeological_cultures_of_South_Asia "Category:Archaeological cultures of South Asia") - [Bronze Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_Bronze_Age "South Asian Bronze Age") - [Iron Age](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_period "Vedic period") - [Middle kingdoms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India "Middle kingdoms of India") - [Medieval](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_India "Medieval India") - [Early modern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India#Early_modern_India) - [Colonial era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_India "Colonial India") - [Contemporary era](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia#Contemporary_era "South Asia") - [Former countries](Category:Former_countries_in_South_Asia "Category:Former countries in South Asia") | | [Religion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_South_Asia "Religion in South Asia") | - [Dharmic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmic_religions "Dharmic religions") - [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Asia "Buddhism in South Asia") - [Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism_in_South_Asia "Hinduism in South Asia") - [Jainism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism "Jainism") - [Sikhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism "Sikhism") - [Islam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_South_Asia "Islam in South Asia") - [Religious persecution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_discrimination "Religious discrimination") - [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Bangladesh#Persecution "Freedom of religion in Bangladesh") - [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India#Modern_India "Religious violence in India") - [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_discrimination_in_Pakistan "Religious discrimination in Pakistan") | | [Sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_South_Asia "Sport in South Asia") | - [Cricket](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricket_in_South_Asia "Cricket in South Asia") - [South Asian Football Federation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_Football_Federation "South Asian Football Federation") - [South Asian Games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_Games "South Asian Games") - [Martial arts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_martial_arts "Indian martial arts") - [Physical culture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_physical_culture "South Asian physical culture") - [Traditional games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_games_of_South_Asia "Traditional games of South Asia") | | [Education](Category:Education_in_South_Asia "Category:Education in South Asia") | - [South Asian studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_studies "South Asian studies") - [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_Indian_subcontinent "History of education in the Indian subcontinent") | | Military | - [India–Pakistan conflicts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India–Pakistan_wars_and_conflicts "India–Pakistan wars and conflicts") - [Sino-Indian border dispute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute "Sino-Indian border dispute") - [Afghanistan–Pakistan skirmishes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan–Pakistan_border_skirmishes "Afghanistan–Pakistan border skirmishes") | | [Science and technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_on_the_Indian_subcontinent "History of science and technology on the Indian subcontinent") | - [Indian Institutes of Technology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Institutes_of_Technology "Indian Institutes of Technology") - [Inventions and discoveries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries "List of Indian inventions and discoveries") - [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_on_the_Indian_subcontinent "History of science and technology on the Indian subcontinent") - [Swords](Category:South_Asian_swords "Category:South Asian swords") - [Traditional medicine](Category:South_Asian_traditional_medicine "Category:South Asian traditional medicine") | | - [v](Template:The_Commonwealth "Template:The Commonwealth") - [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:The_Commonwealth "Template talk:The Commonwealth") - [e](Special:EditPage/Template:The_Commonwealth "Special:EditPage/Template:The Commonwealth") [Members](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations "Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations") of the [Commonwealth of Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations "Commonwealth of Nations") | | | --- | --- | | [Sovereign states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states "List of sovereign states") (members) | - [Antigua and Barbuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda "Antigua and Barbuda") - [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia "Australia") - [Bahamas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bahamas "The Bahamas") - [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh") - [Barbados](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbados "Barbados") - [Belize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belize "Belize") - [Botswana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botswana "Botswana") - [Brunei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei "Brunei") - [Cameroon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon "Cameroon") - [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada "Canada") - [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus") - [Dominica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominica "Dominica") - [Eswatini (Swaziland)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eswatini "Eswatini") - [Fiji](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiji "Fiji") - [Gabon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabon "Gabon") - [Gambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gambia "The Gambia") - [Ghana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana "Ghana") - [Grenada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenada "Grenada") - [Guyana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyana "Guyana") - [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India) - [Jamaica](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica "Jamaica") - [Kenya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya "Kenya") - [Kiribati](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiribati "Kiribati") - [Lesotho](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesotho "Lesotho") - [Malawi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malawi "Malawi") - [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia") - [Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives "Maldives") - [Malta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta "Malta") - [Mauritius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritius "Mauritius") - [Mozambique](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambique "Mozambique") - [Namibia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibia "Namibia") - [Nauru](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauru "Nauru") - [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") - [Nigeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria") - [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") - [Papua New Guinea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea "Papua New Guinea") - [Rwanda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda "Rwanda") - [Saint Kitts and Nevis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis "Saint Kitts and Nevis") - [Saint Lucia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Lucia "Saint Lucia") - [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines") - [Samoa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoa "Samoa") - [Seychelles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seychelles "Seychelles") - [Sierra Leone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone "Sierra Leone") - [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") - [Solomon Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands "Solomon Islands") - [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") - [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka") - [Tanzania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzania "Tanzania") - [Togo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Togo "Togo") - [Tonga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonga "Tonga") - [Trinidad and Tobago](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago "Trinidad and Tobago") - [Tuvalu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuvalu "Tuvalu") - [Uganda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda "Uganda") - [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") - [Vanuatu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanuatu "Vanuatu") - [Zambia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambia "Zambia") | | [Associated states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_state "Associated state") | - [Cook Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_Islands "Cook Islands") - [Niue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niue "Niue") | | [Dependent territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory "Dependent territory") | | | | | --- | --- | | [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia "Australia") | - [Ashmore and Cartier Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashmore_and_Cartier_Islands "Ashmore and Cartier Islands") - *[Australian Antarctic Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Antarctic_Territory "Australian Antarctic Territory")* - [Christmas Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Island "Christmas Island") - [Cocos (Keeling) Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands "Cocos (Keeling) Islands") - [Coral Sea Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_Sea_Islands "Coral Sea Islands") - [Heard Island and McDonald Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands "Heard Island and McDonald Islands") - [Norfolk Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk_Island "Norfolk Island") | | [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand "Realm of New Zealand") | - *[Ross Dependency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Dependency "Ross Dependency")* - [Tokelau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokelau "Tokelau") | | [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Crown "The Crown") | - [Akrotiri and Dhekelia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia "Akrotiri and Dhekelia") - [Anguilla](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguilla "Anguilla") - [Bermuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermuda "Bermuda") - *[British Antarctic Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Antarctic_Territory "British Antarctic Territory")* - [British Indian Ocean Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory "British Indian Ocean Territory") - [British Virgin Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Virgin_Islands "British Virgin Islands") - [Cayman Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayman_Islands "Cayman Islands") - [Falkland Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falkland_Islands "Falkland Islands") - [Gibraltar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar") - [Guernsey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailiwick_of_Guernsey "Bailiwick of Guernsey") - [Isle of Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Man "Isle of Man") - [Jersey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey "Jersey") - [Montserrat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montserrat "Montserrat") - [Pitcairn Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitcairn_Islands "Pitcairn Islands") - [Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Helena,_Ascension_and_Tristan_da_Cunha "Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha") - [South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands "South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands") - [Turks and Caicos Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands "Turks and Caicos Islands") | | | Source: [Commonwealth Secretariat – Member Countries](https://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries) | | | - [v](Template:South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation "Template:South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation") - [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation "Template talk:South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation") - [e](Special:EditPage/Template:South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation "Special:EditPage/Template:South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation") [South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation "South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation") (SAARC) | | | --- | --- | | Agreements | [South Asian Free Trade Area](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_Free_Trade_Area "South Asian Free Trade Area") | | Summits | - [Dhaka 1985](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Bangalore 1986](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Kathmandu 1987](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Islamabad 1988](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Malé 1990](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Colombo 1991](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Dhaka 1993](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [New Delhi 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Malé 1997](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Colombo 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Kathmandu 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Islamabad 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Dhaka 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [New Delhi 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Colombo 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Thimphu 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SAARC_summits "List of SAARC summits") - [Addu 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th_SAARC_summit "17th SAARC summit") - [Kathmandu 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th_SAARC_summit "18th SAARC summit") - [Islamabad 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_SAARC_summit "19th SAARC summit") *(Cancelled)* | | Members | - [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") - [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh") - [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan "Bhutan") - [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India) - [Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives "Maldives") - [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") - [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") - [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka") | | Observers | - [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia "Australia") - [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China") - [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") - [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran") - [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan "Japan") - [Mauritius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritius "Mauritius") - [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar "Myanmar") - [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") - [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States") | | Guests | - [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") - [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") | | Specialised agencies | - [SAARC Consortium on Open and Distance Learning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAARC_Consortium_on_Open_and_Distance_Learning "SAARC Consortium on Open and Distance Learning") - [SAARC Documentation Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAARC_Documentation_Centre "SAARC Documentation Centre") - [South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia_Co-operative_Environment_Programme "South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme") - [Foundation of SAARC Writers and Literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_of_SAARC_Writers_and_Literature "Foundation of SAARC Writers and Literature") - [SAARC Chamber of Commerce and Industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAARC_Chamber_of_Commerce_and_Industry "SAARC Chamber of Commerce and Industry") - [South Asian Federation of Accountants](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_Federation_of_Accountants "South Asian Federation of Accountants") - [SAARC COVID-19 Emergency Fund](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAARC_COVID-19_Emergency_Fund "SAARC COVID-19 Emergency Fund") | | Related Articles | - [SAARC Secretary General](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAARC_Secretary_General "SAARC Secretary General") - [SAARC Secretariat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation_Secretariat "South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Secretariat") - [SAARC satellite](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asia_Satellite "South Asia Satellite") - [South Asian University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_University "South Asian University") - [South Asian Games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_Games "South Asian Games") - [SAARC Literary Award](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAARC_Literary_Award "SAARC Literary Award") - [SAARC Road](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AH48 "AH48") - [SAARC Fountain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAARC_Fountain "SAARC Fountain") | | - [v](Template:G8_nations "Template:G8 nations") - [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:G8_nations "Template talk:G8 nations") - [e](Special:EditPage/Template:G8_nations "Special:EditPage/Template:G8 nations") [Group of Eight (G8)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_of_Eight "Group of Eight") and [Group of Eight + Five (G8+5)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8+5 "G8+5") | | | --- | --- | | G8 members | - [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada "Canada") - [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France "France") - [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany "Germany") - [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy "Italy") - [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan "Japan") - [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") (suspended) - [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") - [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States") | | Representative | - [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") | | [G8+5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8+5 "G8+5") | - [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") - [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China") - [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India) - [Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") - [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") | | See also | - [G6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_of_Seven#History "Group of Seven") - [G7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_of_Seven "Group of Seven") - [G7+1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_of_Eight#History "Group of Eight") - [G4 (Europe)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Four_(Western_Europe) "Big Four (Western Europe)") - [G4 (UN)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G4_nations "G4 nations") | | - [v](Template:G20 "Template:G20") - [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:G20 "Template talk:G20") - [e](Special:EditPage/Template:G20 "Special:EditPage/Template:G20") [G20 major economies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G20 "G20") | | | --- | --- | | - [African Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Union "African Union") - [Argentina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina "Argentina") - [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia "Australia") - [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") - [Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada "Canada") - [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China") - [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union") - [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France "France") - [Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany "Germany") - [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India) - [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia") - [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy "Italy") - [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan "Japan") - [Mexico](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") - [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") - [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia") - [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") - [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") - [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") - [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") - [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States") | | | - [v](Template:BRICS "Template:BRICS") - [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:BRICS "Template talk:BRICS") - [e](Special:EditPage/Template:BRICS "Special:EditPage/Template:BRICS") [BRICS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS "BRICS") | | | --- | --- | | [Membership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_BRICS "Member states of BRICS") | - [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") - [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") - [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India) - [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China") - [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") - [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") - [Ethiopia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia") - [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran") - [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates") - [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia") | | Summits | 1. [Yekaterinburg 2009](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_BRIC_summit "1st BRIC summit") 2. [Brasília 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_BRIC_summit "2nd BRIC summit") 3. [Sanya 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_BRICS_summit "3rd BRICS summit") 4. [New Delhi 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_BRICS_summit "4th BRICS summit") 5. [Durban 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_BRICS_summit "5th BRICS summit") 6. [Fortaleza 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_BRICS_summit "6th BRICS summit") 7. [Ufa 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th_BRICS_summit "7th BRICS summit") 8. [Goa 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th_BRICS_summit "8th BRICS summit") 9. [Xiamen 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9th_BRICS_summit "9th BRICS summit") 10. [Johannesburg 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th_BRICS_summit "10th BRICS summit") 11. [Brasília 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_BRICS_summit "11th BRICS summit") 12. [Saint Petersburg 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12th_BRICS_summit "12th BRICS summit") 13. [New Delhi 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13th_BRICS_summit "13th BRICS summit") 14. [Beijing 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_BRICS_summit "14th BRICS summit") 15. [Johannesburg 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15th_BRICS_summit "15th BRICS summit") 16. [Kazan 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_BRICS_summit "16th BRICS summit") 17. [Rio de Janeiro 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th_BRICS_summit "17th BRICS summit") 18. [India 2026](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th_BRICS_summit "18th BRICS summit") | | [Leaders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_BRICS_summit_attendees "List of BRICS summit attendees") | - [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") [Lula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luiz_Inácio_Lula_da_Silva "Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva") - [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") [Putin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin "Vladimir Putin") - [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India "India") [Modi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modi "Narendra Modi") - [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China") [Xi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping "Xi Jinping") - [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") [Ramaphosa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril_Ramaphosa "Cyril Ramaphosa") - [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") [Sisi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi "Abdel Fattah el-Sisi") - [Ethiopia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia "Ethiopia") [Ahmed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiy_Ahmed "Abiy Ahmed") - [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran") [Pezeshkian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masoud_Pezeshkian "Masoud Pezeshkian") - [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates") [Al Nahyan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_bin_Zayed_Al_Nahyan "Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan") - [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia") [Prabowo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prabowo_Subianto "Prabowo Subianto") | | Sports | - [BRICS U-17 Football Cup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS_U-17_Football_Cup "BRICS U-17 Football Cup") - [2016 Goa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_BRICS_U-17_Football_Cup "2016 BRICS U-17 Football Cup") - [2018 Johannesburg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_BRICS_U-17_Football_Cup "2018 BRICS U-17 Football Cup") - [BRICS Games](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS_Games "BRICS Games") - [2024 Kazan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_BRICS_Games "2024 BRICS Games") - [Athletics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics_at_the_2024_BRICS_Games "Athletics at the 2024 BRICS Games") - [Badminton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badminton_at_the_2024_BRICS_Games "Badminton at the 2024 BRICS Games") - [Gymnastics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnastics_at_the_2024_BRICS_Games "Gymnastics at the 2024 BRICS Games") - [Breaking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breaking_at_the_2024_BRICS_Games "Breaking at the 2024 BRICS Games") - [Acrobatic rock and roll](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrobatic_rock_and_roll_at_the_2024_BRICS_Games "Acrobatic rock and roll at the 2024 BRICS Games") - [Phygital football](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phygital_football_at_the_2024_BRICS_Games "Phygital football at the 2024 BRICS Games") - [Phygital basketball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phygital_basketball_at_the_2024_BRICS_Games "Phygital basketball at the 2024 BRICS Games") | | Related | - [BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS_Contingent_Reserve_Arrangement "BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement") - [BRICS Cable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS_Cable "BRICS Cable") - [BRICS Universities League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS_Universities_League "BRICS Universities League") - [New Development Bank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Development_Bank "New Development Bank") - [BRICS PAY](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS_PAY "BRICS PAY") - [BRIC (economics term)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRIC_(economics_term) "BRIC (economics term)") | | - [v](Template:East_Asia_Summit_(EAS) "Template:East Asia Summit (EAS)") - [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:East_Asia_Summit_(EAS) "Template talk:East Asia Summit (EAS)") - [e](Special:EditPage/Template:East_Asia_Summit_(EAS) "Special:EditPage/Template:East Asia Summit (EAS)") [East Asia Summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia_Summit "East Asia Summit") (EAS) | | | --- | --- | | - [1st](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_East_Asia_Summit "First East Asia Summit") - [2nd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_East_Asia_Summit "Second East Asia Summit") - [3rd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_East_Asia_Summit "Third East Asia Summit") - [4th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_East_Asia_Summit "Fourth East Asia Summit") - [5th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_East_Asia_Summit "Fifth East Asia Summit") - [6th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_East_Asia_Summit "Sixth East Asia Summit") - [7th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh_East_Asia_Summit "Seventh East Asia Summit") - [8th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_East_Asia_Summit "Eighth East Asia Summit") - [9th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninth_East_Asia_Summit "Ninth East Asia Summit") - [10th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenth_East_Asia_Summit "Tenth East Asia Summit") - [11th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleventh_East_Asia_Summit "Eleventh East Asia Summit") - [12th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_East_Asia_Summit "Twelfth East Asia Summit") - [13th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteenth_East_Asia_Summit "Thirteenth East Asia Summit") - [14th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteenth_East_Asia_Summit "Fourteenth East Asia Summit") - [15th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifteenth_East_Asia_Summit "Fifteenth East Asia Summit") - [16th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixteenth_East_Asia_Summit "Sixteenth East Asia Summit") - [17th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventeenth_East_Asia_Summit "Seventeenth East Asia Summit") - [18th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighteenth_East_Asia_Summit "Eighteenth East Asia Summit") - [19th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteenth_East_Asia_Summit "Nineteenth East Asia Summit") | | | - [Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia "Australia") - [Brunei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei "Brunei") - [Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia") - [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China") - [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India) - [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia") - [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan "Japan") - [Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos "Laos") - [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia") - [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar "Myanmar") - [New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") - [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") - [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") - [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") - [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") - [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") - [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States") - [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam") | | | - [v](Template:Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Template:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation") - [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Template talk:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation") - [e](Special:EditPage/Template:Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Special:EditPage/Template:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation") [Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Shanghai Cooperation Organisation") | | | --- | --- | | Summits | - [Beijing 2012](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Beijing_SCO_summit "2012 Beijing SCO summit") - [Dushanbe 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Dushanbe_SCO_summit "2014 Dushanbe SCO summit") - [Astana 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Astana_SCO_summit "2017 Astana SCO summit") - [Qingdao 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Qingdao_SCO_summit "2018 Qingdao SCO summit") - [Samarkand 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Samarkand_SCO_summit "2022 Samarkand SCO summit") - [Astana 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Astana_SCO_summit "2024 Astana SCO summit") - [Islamabad 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Islamabad_SCO_summit "2024 Islamabad SCO summit") - [Tianjin 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Tianjin_SCO_summit "2025 Tianjin SCO summit") | | [Member states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Member states of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation") | - [Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus "Belarus") - [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China") - [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India) - [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran") - [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") - [Kyrgyzstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan") - [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") - [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia") - [Tajikistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan "Tajikistan") - [Uzbekistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan "Uzbekistan") | | Observer states | - [Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia "Mongolia") | | Dialogue partners | - [Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia "Armenia") - [Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan "Azerbaijan") - [Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain "Bahrain") - [Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia") - [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") - [Kuwait](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait") - [Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives "Maldives") - [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar "Myanmar") - [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") - [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar "Qatar") - [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia") - [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka") - [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") - [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates") | | Guests | - [ASEAN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASEAN "ASEAN") - [Commonwealth of Independent States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States "Commonwealth of Independent States") - [Turkmenistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistan "Turkmenistan") - [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") | | Applicants | - [Algeria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria "Algeria") - [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh") - [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") - [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel "Israel") - [Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos "Laos") - [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria "Syria") | | See also | - [Member states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation "Member states of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation") - [Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Anti-Terrorist_Structure "Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure") - [Three Evils](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Evils "Three Evils") - [SCO Interbank Consortium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCO_Interbank_Consortium "SCO Interbank Consortium") - [Eurasian Land Bridge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Land_Bridge "Eurasian Land Bridge") - [Working languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_language "Working language") - [Chinese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language "Chinese language") - [Russian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language "Russian language") | | - [v](Template:Sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Asia "Template:Sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia") - [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Asia "Template talk:Sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia") - [e](Special:EditPage/Template:Sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Asia "Special:EditPage/Template:Sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia") [Sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Asia "List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia") | | | --- | --- | | [Sovereign states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state "Sovereign state") | - [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") - [Armenia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia "Armenia")2 - [Azerbaijan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan "Azerbaijan")1 - [Bahrain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain "Bahrain") - [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh") - [Bhutan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan "Bhutan") - [Brunei](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei "Brunei") - [Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia") - [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China") - [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus")2 - [East Timor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Timor "East Timor") - [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt "Egypt")1 - [Georgia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country) "Georgia (country)")1 - [India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India) - [Indonesia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia")1 - [Iran](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran "Iran") - [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") - [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel "Israel") - [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan "Japan") - [Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan "Jordan") - [Kazakhstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan")1 - [North Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea "North Korea") - [South Korea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") - [Kuwait](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait") - [Kyrgyzstan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan") - [Laos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos "Laos") - [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon") - [Malaysia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia") - [Maldives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives "Maldives") - [Mongolia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia "Mongolia") - [Myanmar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar "Myanmar") - [Nepal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal "Nepal") - [Oman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman "Oman") - [Pakistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") - [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine "Palestine") - [Philippines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") - [Qatar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar "Qatar") - [Russia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia "Russia")1 - [Saudi Arabia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia") - [Singapore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore "Singapore") - [Sri Lanka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka") - [Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria "Syria") - [Tajikistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan "Tajikistan") - [Thailand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand "Thailand") - [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey")1 - [Turkmenistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistan "Turkmenistan") - [United Arab Emirates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates") - [Uzbekistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan "Uzbekistan") - [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam") - [Yemen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemen "Yemen") | | [States with limited recognition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition "List of states with limited recognition") | - [Abkhazia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abkhazia "Abkhazia")2 - [Northern Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Cyprus "Northern Cyprus")2 - [South Ossetia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Ossetia "South Ossetia")2 - [Taiwan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") | | [Dependent territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory "Dependent territory") | | | | | --- | --- | | Australia | - [Christmas Island](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Island "Christmas Island") - [Cocos (Keeling) Islands](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands "Cocos (Keeling) Islands") | | United Kingdom | - [Akrotiri and Dhekelia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia "Akrotiri and Dhekelia")2 (Sovereign Base Areas) - [British Indian Ocean Territory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory "British Indian Ocean Territory") | | | [Special administrative regions of China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China "Special administrative regions of China") | - [Hong Kong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong") - [Macau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau "Macau") | | - 1 Spans the conventional boundary between Asia and another continent. - 2 Considered European for cultural, political and historical reasons but is geographically in West Asia. - **[Category](Category:Asia "Category:Asia")** - **[Asia portal](Portal:Asia "Portal:Asia")** | | | | [Portals](Wikipedia:Contents/Portals "Wikipedia:Contents/Portals"): - ![flag](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/40px-Flag_of_India.svg.png) [India](Portal:India "Portal:India") - [![icon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/P_countries-vector.svg/40px-P_countries-vector.svg.png)](File:P_countries-vector.svg) [Countries](Portal:Countries "Portal:Countries") - [![icon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/20px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png)](File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg) [Asia](Portal:Asia "Portal:Asia") | [Authority control databases](Help:Authority_control "Help:Authority control") [Edit this at Wikidata](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q668#identifiers "Edit this at Wikidata") | | | --- | --- | | International | - [ISNI](https://isni.org/isni/0000000123312734) - [VIAF](https://viaf.org/viaf/135375457) - [GND](https://d-nb.info/gnd/4026722-2) - [FAST](https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1210276) - [WorldCat](https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJmdx47cDXrRhBXHtbvPwC) | | National | - [United States](https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80125948) - [France](https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11934238p) - [2](https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb15323040r) - [3](https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11882652q) - [BnF data](https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11934238p) - [2](https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb15323040r) - [3](https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11882652q) - [Japan](https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00564071) - [Czech Republic](https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge129384&CON_LNG=ENG) - [Spain](https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX451208) - [Portugal](http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/108885) - [Norway](https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90577766) - [Chile](http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000028091) - [Sweden](https://libris.kb.se/mkz10nf529zbmt7) - [Vatican](https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=497/5270) - [Israel](https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007559777805171) | | Geographic | - [MusicBrainz area](https://musicbrainz.org/area/d31a9a15-537f-3669-ad53-25753ddd2772) | | Academics | - [CiNii](https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA01135694?l=en) | | Artists | - [KulturNav](http://kulturnav.org/4fa1552c-dedc-4722-95a7-8ae50e8d7326) | | People | - [Trove](https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/870459) - [UK Parliament](https://id.parliament.uk/DLxLaT11) | | Other | - [IdRef](https://www.idref.fr/026612410) - [2](https://www.idref.fr/027261980) - [Historical Dictionary of Switzerland](https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/003407) - [NARA](https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10044481) - [Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine](http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=13364) - [İslâm Ansiklopedisi](https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/hindistan) - [Yale LUX](https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/3be6c0c6-481a-42c3-9ea1-5cb85de10fd1) | [21°N 78°E / 21°N 78°E / 21; 78](https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=India¶ms=21_N_78_E_region:IN_type:country_source:dewiki) Category: ./Category:Pages\_using\_gadget\_WikiMiniAtlas Category: ./Category:Coordinates\_on\_Wikidata Category: ./Category:India#%20 Category: ./Category:Articles\_containing\_image\_maps Category: ./Category:Articles\_containing\_video\_clips Category: ./Category:BRICS\_nations Category: ./Category:Countries\_and\_territories\_where\_English\_is\_an\_official\_language Category: ./Category:Countries\_and\_territories\_where\_Hindi\_is\_an\_official\_language Category: ./Category:Countries\_in\_Asia Category: ./Category:Countries\_in\_South\_Asia Category: ./Category:Cradle\_of\_civilization Category: ./Category:Federal\_constitutional\_republics Category: ./Category:Former\_British\_colonies\_and\_protectorates\_in\_Asia Category: ./Category:G15\_nations Category: ./Category:G20\_members Category: ./Category:Member\_states\_of\_the\_Commonwealth\_of\_Nations Category: ./Category:Member\_states\_of\_the\_South\_Asian\_Association\_for\_Regional\_Cooperation Category: ./Category:Member\_states\_of\_the\_United\_Nations Category: ./Category:Republics\_in\_the\_Commonwealth\_of\_Nations Category: ./Category:States\_and\_territories\_established\_in\_1947